Cell biology concepts: Cellular foundations

 Prokaryotes and eukaryotes

 Prokaryotes: Genetic material (nucleoid) is not separated from the cytosol

by any membrane

 Eukaryotes: Genetic material is separated from the cytosol in nucleus

enclosed by a double membrane (nuclear membrane)
Cell biology concepts: Domains of life

 Three major domains

 Archaebacteria (prokaryotes living in extreme environmental conditions)

 Eubacteria (prokaryotes)
 Eukaryotes (all unicellular and multicellular eukaryotes)
Cell biology concepts: Cellular foundations

 Cellular dimensions

 Size of animal and plants in the range of 5-100 m

 Size of bacterial cells: 1-2 m

 What limits the cell dimensions?

 Lower limit: probably set by the minimum number of each type of
biomolecules required and the spatial localization of life processes
 Higher limit: probably set by the rate of diffusion of solute molecules
 A cell that requires oxygen for catabolism obtains molecular oxygen from
the surrounding fluid through its PM
 Size of cell is small but its surface area to volume ratio is large to allow
sufficient oxygen to each part of the cells
 As the cell size increases, the surface area to volume is becomes smaller and
hence metabolic consumption of oxygen exceeds diffusion-mediated entry
 This puts a theoretical upper limit on cell size
Cell biology concepts: Classification of life

 Based upon the energy source and carbon utilization for biosynthesis

Source of C CO2 Organic molecules

Autotrophs Heterotrophs
Redox r/ns Chemotrophs Chemoautotrophs Chemoheterotrophs
(Oxidation of
nutrients)
Sunlight Phototrophs Photoautotrophs Photoheterotrophs
Energy source
 We are chemoheterotrophs: use organic molecules as energy sources and
for biosynthesis

 Plants are photoautotrophs: use sunlight as energy source and produce

their own C biomolecules using CO2

 Nitrobacter, Nitrosomonas and sulfur and iron oxidising bacteria are

chemoautotrophs: use oxidation of nutrients (ammonia, hydrogen sulfide,
ferrous iron) for energy, and can use CO2 as C-source

 Heliobacter, purple and green non-sulfur bacteria are photoheterotrophs:

use sunlight as energy source (without C-fixation) but depend on organic
molecules for C requirement
Strength of H-bond

Depends on two things:

 Electronegativity of the X atom in X-H bond

 NH3, H2O and HF

 Direction of the H-bond

 Maximum when the H-atom and the two atoms that share it are in straight
line (maximum electrostatic interaction)
 The directional property of H-bond is critical for maintaining the 3-D
structure of proteins and nucleic acids
Applications of water as a solvent – hydrophobic
interactions
Solubility of polar covalent compounds: formation of H-bonds
Solubility of ionic compounds: electrostatic interactions (water of hydration)

In both cases, H-bonds between water molecules are altered; but compensated
with the formation of new H-bonds (polar covalent) or new electrostatic
interactions (ionic compounds)

Nonpolar compounds like benzene, hexane, etc. also interfere with H-bonds in
water but these are not compensated
Hence they are insoluble in water and exert what are known as hydrophobic
interactions

Nothing but the tendency of nonpolar covalent compounds to come together

and get away from water
Not due to any intrinsic attraction between nonpolar moieties but only because
the system wants to achieve maximum thermodynamic stability by minimally
disturbing the H-bonds in water
Applications of water as a solvent – osmosis and tonicity

Osmosis: Movement of water across a semipermeable membrane (like PM)

from the region of high concentration of water (low concentration of solute) to
lower
PM: more permeable to water than ions

When cells are placed in solutions with high ionic strength/osmolarity

(hypertonic): water moves out of the cell (cell shrinkage)

When cells are placed in solutions with low ionic strength/osmolarity

(hypotonic): water enters into the cells (cell swelling)

Isotonic: no net movement

Physiological conditions: cells have high concentration of solutes (ions,

biomolecules)

Cell swelling is prevented by cell wall (bacteria and plants) or maintenance of

plasma and interstitial fluid at high ionic strength (animals)
Same ionic strength
(isotonicity) in the
extracellular medium:
tonicity of cells is same; no
net movement of water

High ionic strength

(hypertonicity) in the
extracellular medium:
tonicity of cells is low and
water must flow out

Low ionic strength

(hypotonicity) in the
extracellular medium:
tonicity of cells is high and
water must flow in