Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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Chapter 1. Introduction
1.Definitions
2.Harmful effects and benefits of weed
3.Losses caused by weeds
Chapter 2. Weed biology and ecology
2.1. Characteristics of weeds
2.2. Classification of weeds
2.3. Biology of weeds – propagation,
dispersal and persistence, factors
affecting distribution
2.4. Weed Ecology
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Chapter 3.Competition
3.1. Weed crop Competition
3.2. Weed –crop interference
3.4. Threshold of competition
3.5. Critical period of weed competition
3.6. Soil, climate, weed and crop density effect
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Chapter 4. Principles and practices of
weed management
4.1. History of weed control
4.2. Prevention, control and eradication
4.3. Elements of weed control –
Physical, ecological, biological,
chemical and integrated weed
management.
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Chapter 5. Herbicides
5.1. History
5.2. Diversity
5.3. Classes
5.4. Formulations and toxicity
5.5. Application
5.6. Types of treatments
5.7. Drifts
5.8. Adjuvants
5.9. Combination and rotations
5.10. Bioherbicides
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Chapter 6.
Management of major parasitic and invasive weeds of Ethiopia
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Practical sessions:
• Weed collection and identification
• Determination of critical periods of weed crop
competition
• Herbicide calculation and application methods
• Herbicide application equipment and their calibration
• Handling and spraying and precautions during
spraying
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Evaluation and assessment
Practical activity (field & lab practice)........................... 10%
Quiz…………………………..............LN + EV + D 10 %
Assignment.......................................................................10 %
Mid – semester LN + PM + EV + D..………………….30%
Final exam LN + HO + EV +D……………………….40%
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Chapter 1. Introduction
Definitions
There are numerous definitions of a weed, including:
• A plant out of place and not
intentionally sown
• A plant growing where it is not wanted
• A plant whose virtues have not yet
been discovered.
• Plants that are competitive, persistent,
pernicious, and interfere negatively
with human activity and many others.
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Harmful effects and benefits of weed
Negative/harmful effects of weed:
• Weeds compete with the crop plant for
light, nutrients, water, space and other
growth requirements and reduce the
crop yield.
• Increase the cost of production by
increasing the cost of labour.
• Reduce the quality of crop products.
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Thumbai or Thumba.
BENEFITS OF WEEDS
• Weeds when ploughing under, add nutrients,
organic matter.
• Weeds check winds or water erosion by soil binding
effect of their roots.
• Useful as fodder for cattles & as vegetable for
human beings.
• Have medicinal value, Thumbai or Thumba ( Leucas
aspera) is used against snake bite, oil of satyanashi satyanashi
seed is useful against skin diseases, nuts of lavala
are used in making scents (Incense sticks).
• Weeds can also be valuable indicators of growing
conditions in a field, for example of water levels, lavala
compaction and pH.
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Cont.
• Have economic importance
e.g.: saccharum spp used for making
thatches.
• Reclamation of alkali lands (Satyanashi).
• Serve as ornamental plants (Ghaneri).
• Used for fencing (Cactus, Nagphana).
• Used as mulch to check the evaporation
losses of water from the soil. satyanashi
• Used as green manuring & composting.
• Fix atmospheric ‘N’ (Blue-green algae, Ghaneri or Lantana
Tarota, Unhali, etc.)
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Serve as ornamental plants (Ghaneri).
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Losses caused by weeds
1. Reduction in crop yield: Weeds compete for water, nutrients & light.
Being hardy & vigorous in growth habit, they soon outgrow the crops &
consume large amounts of water & nutrients, thus causing heavy losses
in yield. E.g.: 40% reduction in yield of groundnut & 66% reduction in
yield of chilli. The loss of N through weeds is about 150 kg/ha.
2. Increase in the cost of cultivation: One of the objects of tillage is to
control weed on which 30% expenditure is incurred and this may
increase more in heavy infested areas & also cost on weed control by
weeding or chemical control. Hence, reduce the margin of net profit.
3. The quality of field produce is reduced: Weed seeds get harvested &
thrashed along the crop produce which lowers the quality. Such produce
fetches fewer prices in the market. E.g.: Leafy vegetables, grain crop.
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Cont.
4.Reduction in quality of livestock produce: Weeds impart an undesirable flavour
to the milk (Ghaneri), impair quality of wool of sheep (Gokhuru, Aghada), and
cause the death of animals due to poisonous nature of seed (Dhatura).
5. Harbour insect-pests & disease pathogens: Weeds either give shelter to various
insect pests & disease pathogens or serve as alternate hosts & thus helps in
perpetuating the menace from pests & diseases. E.g.: Gall fly of paddy, midge fly
of Jowar, leaf minor of soybean & Groundnut, rust of Wheat, tikka of Groundnut,
Black rust of wheat.
6. Check the flow of water in irrigation channels: Weeds block drainage & check
the flow of water in irrigation canals & field channels thereby increasing the
seepage losses as well as losses through over through over flowing, so reduce the
irrigation efficiency.
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Cont.
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CAUSES OF WEED
The main cause of weed problem in the cropped areas is due to the presence of
following characteristics in them:
• Reproduce in many ways; sexual (seed) and asexual (parts of the plant re-sprout)
• Produce many seeds
• Produce small seeds
• The seeds have fancy ways of getting carried around(float on air or water, stick to animals,
many others)
• If you try to pull them they break off and re-sprout
• Roots or stems from rhizomes or runners
• They are hardy “generalists” and can live almost anywhere
• They grow fast (compared to crop plants)
• Their seeds may stay dormant in the soil for long periods
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Weeds are also successful in giving competition to crop plants due
to:
• No special environmental requirements for germination
• Self-controlled, discontinuous germination and great longevity of seed
• Only a short time spent in vegetative period before beginning to flower
• Continuous seed production maintained for as long as growing conditions permit
• Self-compatible, but not obligatorily self-pollinated or apomictic
• Cross pollination may be achieved by a nonspecialized flower visitor or by wind
• Very high seed output in favorable environmental circumstances
• Production of some seed in a wide range or environmental circumstances; high tolerance
or and often plasticity in face of climatic and edaphic variation
• Special adaptations for short- and long-distance dispersal
• Specialized features for competition, ex. Rosette formation, etc.
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Classification of Weeds
• There are over 30,000 species of weeds around the world.
• Out of these about 18,000 are known to cause serious losses.
• In the list of world’s worst weeds nut grass or nut sedge
(Cyperus rotundus) ranks first and Bermuda grass or hariali
(Cynodon dactylon) second position.
• The weeds with similar morphological characters, life cycle,
requirements of soil , water, climatic condition etc are
grouped together as a class or category.
• Therefore classification of weeds is helpful for adopting weed
management methods for particular group of weeds instead
of against an individual weed species.
• It is always economical and practically feasible to manage the
group of weeds as compared to manage the individual weed
species.
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HARIALI
22
Bermuda grass Cynodon dactylon - (L.)
(Cynodon dactylon)
Common names
Bermuda grass, bermudagrass,
coast cross, costcross, Bahamas
grass, dhoub, kiri-hiri, devil's grass,
African couch, Indian couch, star
grass, kweek grass [English]; herbe
des Bermudes, gros chiendent,
chiendent pied de poule [French];
grama,
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I) Classification of Weeds According to Life Cycle:
• Depending upon their life cycle weeds can be
classified as
• 1) Annual Weeds:
• They complete their life cycle within one year
or one season.
• a) Kharif Annuals / Kharif Weeds:
• They appear with the onset of monsoon (June,
July) and complete their life cycle when rainy
season is over (Oct or Nov) E.g Cock’s comb,
dudhi, math, chimanchara , parthenium etc.
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Cont.
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II) According to Root System:
• Depending upon the depth of root system perennial weeds are classified
as
• a) Shallow Rooted Perennials:
• Those perennial weeds having about 20 to 30 cm deep root system are
called shallow rooted perennial weeds.
• E. g Hariali ( Cynodon dactylon), Quack grass ( Agrophyron repens).
• b) Deep Rooted Perennials:
• Weeds having about one meter or more deeproot system. E.g Nutgrass
( Cyperus rotundus), Johnson grass ( Sorghum holepense ), Acacia spp.
wild ber etc.
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III) According to Mode of Reproduction:
• a) Simple Perennials: Reproduce mostly by seeds.
• E. g Ghaneri- Lantana camara) Acacia- ( Acacia spp),
Wild Ber- ( Zizyphus spp).
• b) Bulbous Perennials:
• Propagate by underground parts like bulbs, rhizomes , tubers etc, as
well as seeds.
• E .g Cattail ( Pan kanis) (Typha spp),
Nut grass or Nut sedge ( Cyperus rotundus),
Johnson grass (Sorghum halepense).
• c) Creeping Perennials:
• Spread by lateral extension of the creeping above ground stem or roots
or by seeds.
E .g Hariali
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– (Cynodon dactylon), Ambooshi – ( Oxalis litifolia)
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IV) According to the Place of Occurrence (Habitat):
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V) According to Nature of Stem:
• 1) Woody Weeds:
• These are the woody and semi-woody and semi-woody rough stem
shrubs and are collectively called brush weeds, E .g Acacia wild ber,
Ghaneri (Lantana Camara) etc.
• 2) Herbaceous Weeds:
• These weeds have green and succulent stem and common accurence
on farm lands. E.g Math, Cocks, Comb, Dudhi, Parthenium etc.
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VI) According to the Origin of Weeds:
1) Introduced or Exotic weeds/ Allien Weeds or Anthrophytes
• Many weeds move from the place of their origin by seeds or other parts
to a new area and establish there and become introduces weeds such
introduced weeds are called alien weeds or anthrophyes.
1. Parthenium hysterophorus –From U.S.A
2. Solanum elaegnifolium- With food grain.
3. Lantana camera ( Ghaneri) : From Shri-Lanka by birds.
4. Cockleber / Gokhru (Xanthium strumarium) : Native of America.
5. Orobanche spp. ( Bambakhu)- Europe.
6. Nutgrass ( Cyperus rotundus) chandvel: Eurasia.
7. Water hyacinth – Tropical America ( Introduced in India by Portuguese)
8. Johnson grass- Asia and southern Europe.
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2) Indigenous Weeds:
• Origin of majority of tropical weeds is India E .g Cock’s comb, Dudhi, Aghada, Hariali etc.
VII) Facultative Weeds or Apophytes:
• Weeds which grow primarily in undistributed or close communities but may some times
escape to the cultivated fields, It is also called Apophytes E .g Cactus.
VIII) Obligate Weeds:
• Weeds which grow or occur primarily in cultivated field where the land is distributed
frequently. E.g Chandvel ( Convolvulus arvensis).
IX) Noxious Weeds:
The weeds which are undesirable , troublesome and difficult to control are called noxious
weeds E.g Nutgrass, Hariali, Parthenium , Striga, Orobanche, Water hyacinth etc.
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X) Objectionable Weeds:
• Weeds which produce seeds that are difficult to separate once mixed
with crop seeds are called objectionable weeds. E. g The mixture of
Argemone Mexicana (Pivala Dhotra) seeds in mustard. Wild onion in
cultivated onion.
XI) Industrials Weeds:
• Weeds invading areas around buildings, highway, railway lines, fence
rows, electric and telephone pole bases etc are called industrial weeds.
E .g Parthenium, Reshimkata, Katemath, etc.
XII) Poisonous Weeds:
• E.g. Parthenium, Datura, Poison, ivy ( Rhus sp), etc.
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Weed biology
• Weed biology is the study of the establishment,
growth, reproduction, and life cycles of weed
species and weed societies/vegetation.
• Weed biology is an integrated science with the
aim of minimizing the negative effects, as well
as using and developing the positive effects, of
weeds.
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Cont.
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Canada thistle
PROPAGATION
• Propagation is the process of multiplying or increasing the
number of plants of the same species and at the same time
perpetuating their desirable characteristics.
• There are two general methods of plant propagation: sexual
and asexual propagation.
Reproduction by seed
• Reproduction by seed is called sexual reproduction.
• It requires pollination and fertilization of an egg which results
in seed that is capable of producing a new plant.
• Seed production varies greatly among and within weed species
in part due to environmental variability between years,
competition from neighboring plants, and genetic variability.
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Vegetative reproduction
• In vegetative (asexual) reproduction, a new
plant develops from a vegetative organ such as
a stem, root or leaf.
• Several modifications of these organs are
common in perennial weeds, such as
underground stems (rhizomes), above-ground
stems (stolons), bulbs, corms, and tubers.
• Although vegetative structures generally do not
survive as long in the soil as do seeds, very
small structures can result in a new plant.
• Canada thistle, for example, can produce a new
plant from as small as a 1/4-inch section of
root.
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Some of the vegetative propagules are described as follows:
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Stolon
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Tuber
Tuber: Enlarged terminal portion of
rhizomes, possess extensive storage
tissues and axillary buds.
Yellow nut sedge is example.
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Bulb
Bulb: Specialized underground storage organ
consisting of fleshy leaves with a short stem at
the base.
- Food storage in the leaves
- Wild garlic is example.
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Creeping roots
Creeping roots: Horizontal roots modified for
food storage and vegetative reproduction (can give rise
to shoots).
- Often deep in the soil.
- Carolina horse nettle is example
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DISSEMINATION / DISPERSAL OF WEEDS
• A plant seed is a unique genetic entity, a biological individual.
• However, a seed is in a diapause state, an essentially dormant condition, awaiting the
ecological conditions that will allow it to grow into an plant, and produce its own seeds.
• Seeds must therefore germinate in a safe place, and then establish themselves as a young
seedling, develop into a juvenile plant, and finally become a sexually mature adult that can
pass its genetic material on to the next generation.
• The chances of a seed developing are generally enhanced if there is a mechanism for
dispersing to an appropriate habitat at some distance away from the parent plant.
• The reason for dispersal is that closely related organisms have similar ecological requirements.
• Obviously, competition with the parent plant will be greatly reduced if its seeds have a
mechanism to disperse some distance away.
• Their ability to spread and remain viable in the soil for years makes eradication nearly
impossible.
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Cont.
• Seeds have no way to move on their own, but they are excellent
travelers.
• Plants have evolved various mechanisms that disperse their seeds
effectively.
• Many species of plants have seeds with anatomical structures that
make them very buoyant, so they can be dispersed over great
distances by the winds.
• In the absence of proper means of their dispersal, weeds could not
have moved from one country to another.
• An effective dispersal of weed seeds and fruits requires two essentials
a successful dispersing agent and an effective adaptation to the new
environment.
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COMMON WEED DISPERSAL AGENTS
(a) Wind
• Many seeds are well adapted to
wind travel.
• Cottony coverings and parachute-
like structures allow seeds to float
with the wind.
• Examples of wind-dispersed seeds
include common milkweed
(Asclepias syriaca), common
dandelion, Canada thistle, and
perennial sowthistle (Sonchus
arvensis).
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Weed seeds and fruits that disseminate through wind
possess special organs to keep them afloat.
Such organs are:
• Pappus – It is a parachute like modification of persistent calyx into
hairs e.g. Asteraceae family weeds - Tridax procumbens
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• Comose - Some weed seeds are covered with
hairs, partially or fully e.g. Calotropis sp.
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• Feathery, persistent styles - Styles are
persistent and feathery
e.g. Anemone sp.
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• Baloon - Modified papery calyx
that encloses the fruits loosely
along with entrapped air
e.g. Physalis minima
• Wings - One or more appendages
that act as wings e.g. Acer
macrophyllum
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Factors that influence wind dispersal:
• Seed weight
• Seed shape
• Structures (wings or pappus)
• Height of release
• Wind speed and turbulence
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(b) Water
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(c) Animals
• Several weed species produce seeds with barbs, hooks,
spines, and rasps that cling to the fur of animals or to
clothing and then can be dispersed to long distances.
• Farm animals carry weed seeds and fruits on their skin,
hair and hooves.
• This is aided by special appendages such as Hooks
(Xanthium strumarium), Stiff hairs (Cenchrus spp),
Sharp spines (Tribulus terrestris) and Scarious bracts
(Achyranthus aspera).
• Even ants carry a huge number of weed seeds.
• Donkeys eat Mesquite ( Prosophis julifera )pods.
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(d) Dispersal by Man
• Man disperses numerous weed seeds and
fruits with raw agricultural produce.
• Weeds mature at the same time and height
along with crop.
• Due to their similar size and shape as that
of crop seed man unknowingly harvest the
weeds also, and aids in dispersal of weed
seeds.
• Such weeds are called “Satellite weeds”
e.g. Avena fatua, Phalaris minor.
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(e) Dispersal by machinery
• Weed seeds often are dispersed by tillage and
harvesting equipments.
• Seeds move from field to field on the soil that sticks to
tractor tires, and vegetative structures often travel on
tillage and cultivation equipment and latter dropping
them in other fields to start new infestation.
• Disc-type cultivation equipment is less likely to drag
vegetative plant parts than are shovels or sweeps.
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(f) Intercontinental movement of weeds
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(g) Crop mimicry dispersal
• Weed seed adaptations to look like crop
seed: plant body or seed same size,
shape, and morphology as crop e.g.
barnyard grass bio-type looking like rice
escapes hand weeding and is dispersed
with rice.
• Nightshade fruit (berries) are same
size, shape as dry beans, harvested and
dispersed with beans.
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( h) As admixtures with crop seed, animal feed, hay, and straw
• Weeds probably are spread more commonly during the
seeding of a new crop or in animal feed and bedding than
by any other method.
• Seed labels often indicate a tiny percentage of weed seed,
but consider this example.
• If a legume seed contains 0.001 percent dodder (a
parasitic annual; Cuscuta campestris) seed by
weight, there will be eight dodder seeds per 2 kg of legume
seed.
• If the legume seed is sown in a field despite an extremely
low dodder seed percentage by weight, the small size of
the seed, combined with rapid early-season growth, could
result in an infested legume field within a single season.
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PERSISTENCE OF WEEDS
(ADAPTATION)
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Factors Affecting Persistence
A. Climatic factors
- Climate can effect variations in cuticle development, pubescence,
vegetative growth, vigour, competitiveness etc.
• Climate thus has a profound effect on the persistence of weeds which
can adapt to a wide variety of climates.
• The important climatic factors are light, temperature, rainfall, wind
and humidity.
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Cont.
i) Light:
Light intensity, quality and duration are important in
influencing the germination, growth, reproduction and
distribution of weeds.
Photoperiod governs flowering time, seed setting and
maturation and on the evolution of various ecotypes within a
weed species.
Tolerance to shading is a major adaptation that enables weeds
to persist.
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Cont.
ii) Temperature:
Temperature of atmosphere and soil affects the latitudinal and
longitudinal distribution of weeds.
Soil temperature affects seed germination and dormancy, which is a
major survival mechanism of weeds.
iii) Rainfall:
Rainfall has a significant effect on weed persistence and distribution.
More rainfall or less rainfall determines reproduction & survival.
iv) Wind:
Wind is a principal factor in the dissemination of weeds.
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B. Soil factors:
• Soil factors are soil water, aeration, temperature, pH and fertility level and
cropping system.
• Some weed species are characteristically alkali plants, known as basophilic (pH
8.5) which can grow well in alkali soils and those grow in acidic soil is known as
Acidophiles.
• Several weed species of compositae family grow well in saline soils.
• A shift in soil pH, towards acid side due to continuous use of Ammonium
sulphate as a ‘N’ source could cause a shift in the weed spectrum.
• Many weeds can grow well in soils of low fertility level however, can adapt well
to soils of high fertility also.
• Weeds also has adaptation to moist soil, drought condition etc.
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C. Biotic factors:
• In a cropping situation, the major effects on weeds
are those exerted by the crop as it competes for
available resources.
• Once, a particular weed species is introduced, its
persistence is determined by the degree of
competition offered by the crop and also the
agricultural practices associated with the growing of
a crop may encourage or discourage specific weeds.
e.g. Ponding of water – Cynodon dies
• Repeated cultivation – discourage nut sedge.
Crops that serve as hosts to parasitic weeds,
(Sorghum – Striga sp) crop-induced stimulants are
examples of other biotic factors.
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Weed Ecology
• Weeds are the most costly category of agricultural pests.
• Worldwide, weeds cause more yield loss and add more to farmers’
production costs than insect pests, crop pathogens, root-feeding
nematodes, or warm-blooded pests (rodents, birds, deer, and other
large grazers).
• Because organic farming principles and standards preclude the use
of most herbicides, many organic farmers consider weeds their
most serious barrier to successful organic production, and effective
organic weed control a top research priority.
• In particular, weeds are a constant fact of life in vegetable crops.
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Cont.
• With a little diligence and timely weeding, the home gardener can
turn most weeds into beneficial organic matter.
• However, weed control costs can really add up in a one-acre market
garden, and a weedy vegetable field at the 10–100-acre scale can
spell a crop failure.
• Having an ecological understanding of weeds is the foundation of an
effective organic weed management program that can make the
difference between success and failure.
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Chapter 3. Competition
Weed crop Competition
• Weed-crop competition for nutrients, especially for nitrogen, is one
of the most important problems since the availability of nitrogen is
often the limiting factor in plant growth especially in soils with low
supplementary ability.
• The factors that account for nitrogen variation in crop systems are
soil type, soil organic content and availability of water, seasonal
precipitation, date of sowing, choice of variety, rate and application
of nitrogen fertilization, and weed control.
• Nitrogen management practices can affect the outcome of
competition with respect to the weed population and its competitive
ability relative to the crop.
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Cont.
• It has been reported that broadcast nitrogen
application stimulates the growth of Bromus
tectorum L. more than does deep band placement
in a fallow wheat system .
• Research on the effects of competition for
nitrogen related to crop response has shown that
tall cultivars of wheat subject to relatively high
fertilizer rates could compete more efficiently
with Avena. fatua (common wild oat) due to
competition for light . Avena. fatua
(common wild oat)
• Reductions of nitrogen, phosphorus, and
potassium in a range of cereal crops due to Lolium
rigidum Gaudin, Veronica hederifolia L., and A.
fatua competition have also been reported .
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Weed –crop interference
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What effect does climate change have on vegetable–weed
competition?
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Threshold of competition
• An economic threshold for weed control, or the “break-even point” is the
level of weed infestation at which the cost of controlling the weeds is equal
to the increase in crop value obtained as a result of controlling the weeds.
• The concept of thresholds has many applications in weed science, depending
on the response being measured.
• The most common adjectives used to describe thresholds are damage,
economic, period, and action.
• Damage threshold is the term used to define the weed population at which a
negative crop yield response is detected.
• An economic threshold is the weed population at which the cost of control is
equal to the crop value increase from control of the weeds present.
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Critical period of weed competition
• The critical period of competition defines how long
weeds can compete with crops before affecting yields.
• Two critical periods are defined.
• The first involves weeds that emerge at the same time
as the crop and compete until a postemergence
strategy is applied.
• These weeds have the greatest potential to affect crop
yields and are the focus of this article.
• The second critical period involves weeds that emerge
after crop emergence.
• As the interval between crop and weed emergence
increases there is less likelihood that the weeds will
impact yields.
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Critical period of weed competition
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Critical period of weed competition
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Critical weed free period
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Soil, climate, weed and crop density effect
• Rice (Oryza sativa L.)—wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) (RW) is the
major agri-food system occupying an area of 13.5 Mha in the
Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP) of South Asia; of which ten Mha in
India, with almost 50% (5 Mha) are in western IGP comprising of
Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh, the food basket of
India.
• With conventional management practices, high productivity
derived from this continuous RW system are at the cost of over-
exploitation of resources (i.e. groundwater, soil, energy) and high
use of inputs, (i.e. irrigation, fertilizer, herbicides and pesticides)
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Cont.
Canary grass (Phalaris minor)
• The sustainability of the RW system in western
Indo-Gangetic plains (IGP) is doubtful due to
the rapid decline in soil and water resources,
and environmental quality.
• Furthermore, continued cultivation of the
same cropping system (i.e. rice–wheat system)
over the last five decades allowed certain weed
species like Canary grass (Phalaris minor) to
adapt, increase their establishment, seedbank
and profusion.
• Such weeds adversely affect resource use
efficiency (light, water and nutrients), and crop
productivity
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Chapter 4.
Principles and practices of weed management
4.1. History of weed control
• The intentional manipulation of wild plants to
become desirable crops was the beginning of
agriculture some 10,000 years ago.
• Along with this beginning came weeds;
unwanted plants that prospered in the same
human-created environments.
• Weeds are therefore just as much a part of
our domestic culture as the crops.
• So the history of weed control technology is
co-existent with the history of agricultural
technology.
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Prevention, control and eradication
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Cont.
• Ensure equipment and vehicles are clean
and free of visible debris before entering a
weed free zone.
• In addition, ground disturbance needs to
be minimized as much as possible on all
lands, including construction,
maintenance activities and all general
land uses.
• All areas are prone to infestation when
disturbed; re-vegetation of native species
is needed immediately after the
disturbance has occurred.
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Cont.
• There are four main tools used for control; chemical, cultural, mechanical,
and biological.
• THE BEST TIME TO ERADICATE NOXIOUS WEEDS IS BEFORE THEY GET
ESTABLISHED IN AN AREA.
• Chemical control – Selective herbicides (Milestone, Curtail, 2, 4-D) target
broadleaf plants and won’t harm grasses.
• Broad spectrum or nonselective herbicides (Roundup) control a large variety
of vegetation.
• These are most often used when total vegetation control desirable and
reseeding is desired.
• Under most circumstances a select broadleaf herbicide is recommended.
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Cont.
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Elements of weed control –Physical, ecological, biological,
chemical and integrated weed management.
• Foliar applied: These are applied to portion of the plant above the
ground and are absorbed by exposed tissues.
• These are generally postemergence herbicides and can either be
translocated (systemic) throughout the plant or remain at specific site
(contact).
• External barriers of plants like cuticle, waxes, cell wall etc. affect
herbicide absorption and action. Glyphosate, 2,4-D, and dicamba are
foliar applied herbicide.
i) Contact herbicide:
A contact herbicide kills those plant
parts with which it comes in direct
contact e.g. Paraquat
Herbicide formulation:
• Herbicides in their natural state may be solid, liquid, volatile, non-volatile,
soluble or insoluble.
• Hence these have to be made in forms suitable and safe for their field use.
• An herbicide formulation is prepared by the manufacturer by blending the
active ingredient with substances like solvents, inert carriers, surfactants,
stickers, stabilizers etc.
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Objectives in herbicide formulations are;
• Ease of handling
• High controlled activity on the target plants
Need for preparing herbicide formulation
ii) Wettable powders (WP): A herbicide is absorbed by an inert carrier together with
an added surface acting agent.
The material is finely ground so that it may form a suspension when agitated with a
required volume of water e.g., Atrazine
iii) Granules (G): The inert material (carrier) is given a granular shape and the
herbicide (active ingredient) is mixed with sand, clay, vermiculite, finely ground plant
parts (ground corn cobs) as carrier material e.g. Alachlor granules.
• Weed-crop situation
• Type of herbicides
• Mode of action and selectivity
• Environmental factors
• Cost and convenience of application
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Depending on the target site, the herbicides are classified into
5 Herbigation
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1. Soil application of herbicides:
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COMPILED BY GA
Cont.
5. Pressurize the sprayer and check nozzles for uniform output by spraying water on
the pavement and watching for streaks as the spray dries.
Wet streaks directly under the nozzles may result from damaged or worn nozzle tips,
low operating pressure, or low boom height.
Wet streaks between nozzles may result from incorrect alignment or boom height.
Clogged nozzles may produce streaks anywhere in the spray pattern of the bad
nozzle.
Replace any nozzle producing heavy or light streaks and recheck for an even pattern.
6. Check all hoses, fittings, and the pump for leaks.
7. Check all pressure gauges. If a gauge is rusty or of questionable accuracy, replace it.
8. If you are using a sprayer with multiple nozzles on a boom, follow the steps below
to be sure that all the nozzles are releasing nearly equal amounts of spray solution
(use water for this procedure):
• Step 1.
• Find a container marked in ounces.
• With the sprayer operating at the desired pressure, catch the output from each
nozzle for 30 seconds and write down the number of ounces from each nozzle.
• Step 2.
• After catching the spray from each nozzle individually, add the amounts caught and
divide by the number of nozzles to get the average output per nozzle.
• Step 3.
• If the output from any nozzle is more than 10 percent above or below the average,
clean or replace that nozzle.
• Step 4.
• Recheck the output from all nozzles. Use the new output to figure a new average.
Make appropriate nozzle changes, if necessary.
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Example of Nozzle Output Before you begin to calibrate a sprayer, check it carefully to be sure that all components
are in good working condition.
Nozzle Output Test #1 Output Test #2
(Ounces after 30 seconds) (Ounces after 30 seconds)
1 25 25
2 20 24
3 24 25
4 23 25
5 25 24
6 24 26
7 23 25
8 28 26
Total 192 ounces 200 ounces
divided by 8 nozzles divided by 8 nozzles
• Activator adjuvants are designed to improve the “activity" of the pesticide, typically
by increasing its absorption rate and reducing the surface tension on the leaf.
• Activator adjuvants include surfactants, oils, and nitrogen-based fertilizers.
Surfactants
- Surfactants (whose name comes from “surface acting agents") physically change
the properties of the spray solution and droplets.
• They help improve the pesticide’s ability to emulsify, disperse, spread, and stick by
reducing surface tension .
• Leaf surfaces, as well as pesticides, have a molecular charge. A surfactant’s charge,
or lack of charge, will determine how it bonds to a pesticide, which in turn affects
how the pesticide will bond to the leaf surface.
• The application of synthetic herbicides for effective weed control has thus
become indispensable despite the unwelcome side effects.
• Recently, there has been a growing interest in organic fruits, vegetables, dairy
products, and beverages all over the world, particularly in developed
countries .
• Organic products make up a small percentage of the food industry, but their
rapid growth has created considerable interest among consumers and
businessmen, as well as researchers.
• In 2013, there were almost two million produces, and 36% of global organic
farmers are in Asia, followed by Africa (29%) and Europe (17%).
• Organic product sales have consistently increased over the last decades .
• To cope with the rising demand from consumers, farmers are shifting from
harmful chemical-dependent conventional agriculture to more sustainable
and greener farm practices.
• Such development has led to the advent of more sustainable and
environmentally friendly weed control alternatives.
• The fundamental philosophy of sustainable weed management is based on
the idea of preventing the spread of weeds rather than controlling them
until they have developed and started to cause harm .
• Sustainable weed management comprises a suite of weed management
options such as crop rotation, intercropping, crop competitiveness tillage,
mulching, biological control agents, and green/bioherbicides which
preclude the use of chemical herbicides.
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Cont.
• Bioherbicides prepared from allelochemicals are thus negligibly harmful to the bio-
ecosystems and human health .
• Some allelochemicals are soluble in water, making them easier to apply without adding
surfactants .
• The chemical structures of allelochemicals are more environmentally friendly compared
to those of synthetic herbicides.
• Allelochemical bioherbicides typically have short-lived environmental persistence and
low toxicity, and they often employ multiple modes of action, which reduces the risk of
herbicide resistance .
• As a result, allelochemicals serve as good candidates for the development of
bioherbicides, antimicrobial agents, and growth regulators.
• Plant extracts, which are traditionally used for medical or nutritional purposes,
may serve as an alternative for developing bioherbicides for sustainable
agricultural practices in weed management.
• Bioherbicides produced from the extracts of natural sources have shown
promising potential against weeds.
• Several plant extract compounds possess a specific inhibiting activity against
weed growth but cause no detrimental injury to crops .
• This may be explained by the difference in sensitivity in the target enzymes or
the existence of specific receptors in weeds that recognize and react with the
compounds
• Plant residues release biochemical substances on the soil that can hinder
seed germination and the seedling growth of weeds.
• Leaf extract of Tinospora tuberculata Beumee inhibited the germination
and growth of E. crus-galli, although it also showed phytotoxicity in the
crops (O. sativa, Dacus carrota L., L. sativa, Cucumis sativa L. and S.
lycopersicum).
• Likewise, the extracts of S. nigrum, C. album, and Matricaria
chamomilla L. exhibited suppressive action on the germination and
seedling growth of H. vulgare, Phaseolus vulgaris L., Cicer
arietinum L., Zea mays L., Allium cepa L., Capsicum annuum L., S.
lycopersicum, and Triticum aestivum L. .
• The seed germination of C. arietinum, T. aestivum, B. nigra, and Lens
culinaris L. was significantly reduced by the application of Butea
monosperm L.
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Chick pea
(Cicer arietinum)
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Shoot and Root
• Shoot length is one of the significant growth
parameters considered for the growth and
development of plants.
• Generally, shoot growth is less sensitive to phytotoxic
plant extracts compared to radicle growth .
• The greater sensitivity of radicle growth to plant
extracts is due to the radicle being the first organ to
be exposed to the phytotoxic substances and having a
more permeable tissue than other organs and/or a
low mitotic division in the root apical meristem .
• Moreover, phytotoxic substances can affect genes
responsible for the cellular characterization of radicle
tissues and the endoderm, inhibiting their
development.
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Leaf Area
• The leaf area of a plant is an important parameter for assessing
growth.
• It is a variable that relates the atmospheric condition of the plant
through the process, such as transpiration, respiration, and
photosynthesis.
• It is a fundamentally essential tool used in scientific disciplines
such as agronomy, plant physiology, entomology, ecology, plant
pathology, and many others.
• The cuticle is present on the upper and lower surfaces of the leaf
that line the sub-stomatal cavities.
• The epidermal surfaces of the plant are covered by a cuticle to
protect against water loss and desiccation.
• Herbicide movement or absorption into leaves depends on the
spray retention of a herbicide on the leaf surface and the
diffusion through the cuticle.
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• Knapsack sprayers are used for spraying insecticides
and pesticides on small tress' shrubs and row crops up
to 2.5 m height.
• Features: It consists of a frame on which fuel tank, engine
and hose with cut-off mechanism are mounted.
• There is a general trend of increased rodent population that will in turn reduce
the diversity and population of grass species.
• Rodents such as Merriam kangaroo rat (Dipodomys merriam) have been found to
store Mesquite seeds in shallow caches under the ground.
• Many of these seeds are never retrieved but instead, germinate and increase the
infestation.
• As rodent population expands, they tend to move their caches farther into the
grassland areas.
• Although rodents kill considerable number of mesquite seedlings by grazing, this
is more than offset by their distribution activities.
• The population of predators such as Hyena, Fox, Lion, Snake, and Leopard, which
kill livestock and warthog which damage crops, were increased because of
invasion.
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Cont.
• Prosopis has an effect on human health.
• The most important effect of prosopis on human health is
that its thorns cause itching and bring tetanus.
• Its thorns can even cause blindness.
• There are some distinct environmental impacts of
Prosopis served as a windbreak by preventing movement
of sand-drift and typhoon.
• There is an indication of reducing air temperature and
creating a mild weather.
• It has affected the flora by suppressing grass species and
the natural regeneration of native tree species
FORBS
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Cont.
• Invasive plant species can directly or indirectly affect the food security of local
residents and increase vulnerability to hazards and risks.
• In areas where they spread, invasive species can destroy natural pasture,
displace native trees, and reduce grazing potential of rangelands.
• Invasive species of Plants like water hyacinth also block water ways for
irrigation, navigation, electricity generation, and livestock watering.
• Ecologically, benthic and littoral diversity is reduced because of dense and
impenetrable mats of water hyacinth .
• Some species of invasive plants pose health risks to livestock and humans in the
invaded areas by impairing mobility or causing injuries.
• These species can affect crop production, animal husbandry, human health and
biodiversity.
• The gradual worsening of crop pests (disease, insect and weed) is becoming the
major bottlenecks of vegetable production and productivity in mid rift valley of
Ethiopia.
• Chemical pesticides used to protect pests are predominantly exalting the
production cost.
• Producers have been applying high shower of pesticides with high frequency and
above the recommended dose to overcome the problem; which resulted in
accelerated prevalence and severity of pests.
• This came from application of pesticides without adequate knowledge of the pest
and the identity of the pesticide.
• Furthermore, the practice resulted in ineffective pest control using pesticide due
to development of resistance and decimated natural controlling factors.
• Weeds simply grow and bear their seed using the residual moisture and
fertilizer.
• Weed seeds germination and growth is year round in irrigated vegetable
production areas.
• In tomato field specifically, weeding activity terminated immediately after
flowering due to the assumption that weeding aggravates disease severity in
the field.
• Till the final harvest the field totally covered by the weed.
• After harvest the field left abandoned and the weeds complete their lifecycle
and shed their seed to the soil.