Applied Crop Production Stream

Lecture Note On:-

 
Vegetable Crop Production and Management
3 cr.hr. (5 – ECTS)

Compiled By:
Getachew Asamenew
12/03/2022 BY GA 1
 Course objectives:-
after completion of this course, students could able:-

• To be acquainted with the classes and importance of vegetable crops.

• To identify the environment, climate and soil type suitable for
vegetable production.
• To select nursery sites and establish vegetable nursery and vegetable
garden.
• To have skills and techniques of propagating vegetables.
• To practice use of irrigation, fertilizer application and soil preparation.
• To be acquainted with techniques of vegetable harvesting, storage
and post harvest management.
• To have ability of identifying and control methods of major pre and
post harvest vegetable diseases and pests.
12/03/2022 BY GA 2
Chapter 1. Description and importance of vegetable crops (4 hours)
1.1. Definition of vegetable crops (1 hours)
1.2. Importance of vegetable crops (1 hours)
1.3. Classification of vegetable crops (2 hours)

Chapter 2. Nursery and production site establishment for

vegetable crops (6 hours)
2.1. Identifying agro – ecological requirements of vegetable crops. (2 hours)
2.2. Nursery and production site selection (2 hours)
2.3. Design, layout and construction facilities for nursery and production sites. (2
hours)

12/03/2022 BY GA 3
Chapter 3. Land clearing and preparation (6 hours)
3.1. Clearing the land (2 hours)
3.2. Preparing the land for plating (4 hours)

Chapter 4. Sowing / planting of vegetable crops(6 hours)

4.1. Maintaining soil moisture for sowing (2 hours)
4.2. Determination of planting time and plant spacing. (4 hours)
Chapter 5. Vegetable crops management under field
conditions (10 hours)
5.1. Watering
5.2. Mulching
5.3. Hoeing

12/03/2022 BY GA 4
Chapter 6. Major vegetable crops (6 hours)
 Crucifereae/cole/cool/brassica/Brassicaceae example BBCCCCMTKK
 Legumnaceae/legume example BP
 Solanaceae/solanacous example TPPP
 Convolvulaceae example SP
 Cucurbitaceae/cucurbits example CWMMMSP

Chapter 7. Root and tuber crops (4 hours)

Carrots, parsnips, radish, rutabega and beet root

Chapter 8.Vegetable crop insect pests and diseases (4 hours)

 Symptoms, cause, comments, and managements

12/03/2022 BY GA 5
 Practical Studies ( 30 hours)
• Identification of tools and implements used for cultivating
vegetables;
• establishing nurseries for vegetable seedlings and laying-out beds
and plots;
• direct sowing and transplanting techniques; vegetable seed
collection and handling techniques;
• identification of vegetable parts used to propagates vegetable crops
(bulbs, tubers, cloves, stems);
• establishing vegetable crops by vegetative parts; staking, thinning,
earthing-up, ridging, irrigating and weeding techniques; fertilizing
vegetable crops;
• identification of major pests and diseases of vegetable crops.
• Working close is a must.
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 Practical ACTIVITY

12/03/2022 BY GA 7
 Methods of evaluation
• Assignments, and field practices 20%
• Quiz (LN + EV + D ) 10%
• Mid semester examination (LN + EV + D) 25%
• Final examination (LN + HO + EV) 45%

12/03/2022 BY GA 8
 CHAPTER 1.
DESCRIPTION AND IMPORTANCE OF CROPS
1.1. Definition of vegetable crops
• Vegetables are parts of plants that are consumed by
humans or other animals as food.
• The original meaning is still commonly used and is applied
to plants collectively to refer to all edible plant matter,
including the flowers, fruits, stems, leaves, roots, and
seeds.
• The alternate definition of the term vegetable is applied
somewhat arbitrarily, often by culinary and cultural
tradition.
• It may exclude foods derived from some plants that are
fruits, flowers, nuts, and cereal grains, but include some
fruits such as tomatoes and courgettes, flowers such as
broccoli, and seeds such asBYpulses.
12/03/2022 GA 9
 cont.

…….

Corn & Tomatoes

Cole Crops

12/03/2022 BY GA 10
 cont.

• Originally, vegetables were collected from the wild by hunter-gatherers and

entered cultivation in several parts of the world, probably during the period
10,000 BC to 7,000 BC, when a new agricultural way of life developed.
• At first, plants which grew locally would have been cultivated, but as time
went on, trade brought exotic crops from elsewhere to add to domestic
types.
• Nowadays, most vegetables are grown all over the world as climate
permits, and crops may be cultivated in protected environments in less
suitable locations.
• China is the largest producer of vegetables and global trade in agricultural
products allows consumers to purchase vegetables grown in faraway
countries.
• The scale of production varies from subsistence farmers supplying the
needs of their family for food, to agribusinesses with vast acreages of
single-product crops.
• Depending on the type of vegetable concerned, harvesting the crop is
followed by grading, storing, processing, and marketing.
12/03/2022 BY GA 11
 1.2. Importance of vegetable crops
1. Importance in human nutrition
2. Vegetables are important source of farm income
3. Vegetables have aesthetic value
4. Vegetables production for medicinal purpose
5. Vegetables in national economy
6. Flexibility in production programme-unlike the
fruits with vegetables the production programme can be
adjusted and changed for better profits according to needs.
With fruits it is difficult time taking and also
expensive to change the production programme if
it turns out to be unprofitable.
7. More yield per unit area-vegetables give higher
total yield per unit area per unit time than cereals
and other crops.
12/03/2022 BY GA 12
 Importance of vegetables in human diet
• Vegetables supply most of the nutrients that are deficient in
other food materials.
• This includes supply of minerals, especially calcium and iron.
Vegetables are acid neutralizers e.g. okra, Corchorus spp
neutralizes the acid produced from the some fruits.
Vegetables prevent constipation and promote digestion as a
result of fibres/roughages obtained from okra, cucumber,
amaranthus, lettuce and cabbage.
• Vegetables are rich sources of vitamins A, B, and C which
helps to lower susceptibility to infection. e.g.: Carrots, sweet
corn, amaranthus and celosia provide Vitamin A; Bitter leaf,
water leaf, solanum and celosia provide Vitamin B; Tomatoes,
carrots, lettuce, cabbage and amaranthus provide Vitamin C.
• Also, some vegetables are rich sources of carbohydrate e.g.
potatoes,
12/03/2022 sweet corn, carrot etc.
BY GA 13
12/03/2022 BY GA 14
 Reasons for increasing importance and
scope of vegetables are:
• Changing food habits of people and so their
food baskets.
• Increasing awareness of people towards
balanced diet and concept of nutritional
security.
• Vegetables produce more biomass per unit area
and fetch more prices per unit production so
are more economical to grow.

12/03/2022 BY GA 15
 Table-: Comparative yield per unit area of vegetables
and cereals
S.N. Crops Average total yield ( Q/hac.)

1. Wheat 20-25
2. Rice 25-30
3. Potato 150-200
4. Cauliflower 125-175
5. Watermelon 200-225
6. Tomato 200-250
7. Pea 60-70
9. Okra 100-120
12/03/2022 BY GA 16
 Bottlenecks in vegetable cultivation:
•  Adopting vegetable growing as business has some limitations
also. These limitations are:
Perishability:
• As vegetables are perishable in nature, they need either very
quick disposal or proper processing (which is still lacking in our
country).
• India is worlds' second largest producer but 35% of produce is
lost due to poor post harvest management.
Infrastructure (Cold chain, roads, power and
transportation): 
• Vegetables have very specific handling and storing requirements
if their quality and freshness has to be maintained.
12/03/2022 BY GA 17
 .

cont.

• Marketing of vegetables is not very well organized in our country.

• It is dominated by more numbers of retailers and the price
received by farmers is very less.
• Proper techniques of packaging in vegetable are still lacking.
• An overview of status of packaging in our country shows that
about 30 per cent of the marketable vegetables perish due to
improper post harvest management.
• Sufficient quantity of High-yielding varieties (HYVs) is not
available.
• Lack of knowledge among farmers regarding scientific cultivation
practices of vegetables.
• Processing could have been an excellent remedy, but only 2% of
produce is processed.

12/03/2022 BY GA 18
 1.3. Classification of vegetable crops
• There are about 10,000 plant species that are used as
vegetables the world over.
• Of these, about fifty plant species or so are
commercially important.
• It is therefore, important to classify vegetables into
groups or classes to better understand or discuss them.
• Vegetables that share some characteristics are grouped
together.
• There are different ways of classifying vegetable crops
but none of these methods would satisfy completely the
different groups like farmers, consumers, academics etc.
• Broadly there are five methods of classifying vegetables.
12/03/2022 BY GA 19
 These include;

1. Botanical classification
2. Classification based on hardiness or
temperature
3. Classification based on plant part used
4. Classification based on culture
5. Classification based on life cycle

12/03/2022 BY GA 20
 1. Botanical classification
• This is the only method of classifying crop plants, which is
universally accepted.
• Linnaeus, a renowned taxonomist was the first to give binomial
classification in plants and animals.
• The classification is based on morphological and cytological
similarities and dissimilarities, place of origin, cross ability
behavior, floral biology etc.
• The successive levels of morphological relationships are a result
of evolution.
• Botanical classification involves grouping of plants into
kingdom, division, sub-division, phylum, sub-phylum, class, sub-
class, order, family, genera, species, sub-species and variety.
• The broadest group in which vegetables are discussed is family.

12/03/2022 BY GA 21
.

cont.

• All vegetable crops belong to the division

Angiospermae.
The division Angiospermae has two classes.
Class I: Monocotyledoneae
Class II: Dicotyledoneae 
• Vegetables are classified according to family,
genera and species.
• It is the most important and acceptable form of
classification.

12/03/2022 BY GA 22
 cont.

Family Botanical name Common name

Amaranthus dubius Amaranth
Amaranthaceae
Celosia argentea Celosia
Cucurbita maxima Pumpkin
Cucurbitaceae
Cucumis sativus Cucumber
Abelmoschus esculentus (L.)
Malvaceae Okra
Moench
Solanum tuberosum Irish potato
Solanaceae
Solanum melongena L. Eggplant
Tiliaceae Corchorus olitorius L. Jews mallow
Vernonia colorata Bitter leaf
Compositae
Lactuca sativa Lettuce
Brassica oleraceae Cabbage
Cruciferae
Raphanus sativus Radish
Portulaceae Talinum triangulare Water leaf
Basellaceae Basella rubra Indian spinach
12/03/2022 BY GA 23
 2. Classification based on hardiness or
temperature
• This classification is based on the ability of crop plants to tolerate
frost.
• Hardy crops are those, which can tolerate frost.
• These are essentially winter season/cool season/temperate crops
and are adapted to mean monthly temperature of 15-18°C.
• These crops can further be divided into two sub-groups viz., hardy
or tolerant vegetables and semi-hardy or semi-tolerant
vegetables.
• Some of the hardy crops like asparagus and rhubarb can tolerate
even freezing temperature.
• Non-hardy crops or the summer season crops like cucurbits thrive
best under high temperature (20-27°C) and are intolerant to frost.

12/03/2022 BY GA 24
 Based upon the hardiness, vegetable crops are divided
into the following groups.
2.1. Winter Season Vegetables (15-18°C)
2.1.1. Hardy/tolerant vegetables—these include asparagus,
broccoli, Brussels sprouts,
cabbage, chive, collard, garlic, kale, knol-khol, leek, onion,
parsley, pea, radish, rhubarb, spinach and turnip.
2.1.2. Semi-hardy/ semi-tolerant vegetables—these include
carrot, cauliflower, Chinese cabbage, celery, globe artichoke,
lettuce, leaf beet, parsnip and potato.
2.2. Summer Season Vegetables (20-27°C)
2.2.1. Tender/ sensitive vegetables—these include chilli, tomato,
snap bean and sweet corn.
2.2.2. Very tender/ very sensitive vegetables—these include
amaranth, okra, eggplant, bell pepper, tapioca, chilli, cluster
bean, Lima bean, cowpea, cucurbits,
12/03/2022 BY GA
sweet potato and yam.25
 3. Classification based on plant part used
• This classification is important from the consumer
and post-harvest handling point of view.
• For example, leafy vegetables are highly perishable
and cannot be stored for longer periods.
• After harvest, they have to be immediately cooled
and stored under ambient temperature conditions
to preserve quality.
• On the other hand tubers and bulbs can be stored
at room temperature for a considerable period
without loosing quality.
12/03/2022 BY GA 26
 Cont..
On the basis of edible plant part, vegetables can be classified
into the following groups;
3.1. Leaves; cabbage, lettuce, spinach, leaf beet, fenugreek etc.
3.2. Stem; Kohlrabi (knol-khol ), asparagus, celery, etc.
3.3. Fruits; cucurbits, tomato, eggplant, chilli, bell pepper etc.
3.4. Pods; snap pea, snow pea, beans, okra etc.
3.5. Flowers; broccoli, cauliflower, globe artichoke
3.6. Roots; radish, turnip, carrot, beetroot, yam, rutabaga,
parsnip etc.
3.7. Bulbs; onion, garlic, leek, shallot etc.
3.9. Tubers; potato, sweet potato, cassava, taro.
3.10. Seeds; pea, bean.
12/03/2022 BY GA 27
 cont.

12/03/2022 BY GA 28
 cont.

12/03/2022 BY GA 29
 cont.

12/03/2022 BY GA 30
 4. Classification based on culture
• In this classification, all vegetable crops requiring similar
cultural requirements are grouped together.
• This method of classification is of much practical value for
farmers and students of Olericulture.
• Based on their cultural and climatic requirements, vegetables
are divided into the following groups;
4.1. Cole crops; these crops belong to the family
Cruciferae and are also called crucifers or Brassicas.
• These are winter season and transplanted crops.
• The crops include cauliflower, cabbage, knol-khol
(kohlrabi), Chinese cabbage, sprouting broccoli and
Brussels sprouts etc.
12/03/2022 BY GA 31
 cont.

12/03/2022 BY GA 32
 Cont.

4.2. Leafy vegetables; all vegetables belonging to

this group are direct seeded crops and include
spinach, leaf beet, coriander, fenugreek, Swiss
chard etc.
4.3. Salad vegetables; these crops are mainly eaten raw
and include lettuce, celery, and parsley.
4.4. Root vegetables; these crops have prominent and
fleshy underground structures and are
direct sown winter season crops.
These include radish, carrot, turnip, beetroot, parsnip,
rutabaga etc.
12/03/2022 BY GA 33
 5. Classification based on life cycle

• Based on life cycle, vegetables may be classified as

• annuals eg. spinach, cucumber, baby corn, etc.,
• biennials eg. broccoli, cabbage, parsley, etc.
• perennials eg. asparagus, eggplant, pepper, most
tropical vegetables.
• Few popular vegetable garden crops are biennials, and,
even then, they are frequently cultivated as annuals and
replanted each season.
• Examples are sugar beet (Beta vulgaris) and carrot
(Daucus carota).
12/03/2022 BY GA 34
 cont.

Vertical Gardening

12/03/2022 BY GA 35
 cont.

Vertical Gardening

12/03/2022 BY GA 36
 cont.

12/03/2022 BY GA 37
 CHAPTER 2.
NURSERY AND PRODUCTION SITE
ESTABLISHMENT FOR VEGETABLE CROPS.
2.1. Identifying agro – ecological requirements of
vegetable crops.
• Ethiopia is one of the fastest growing non-oil economy
countries in Africa.
• The country is heavily reliant on agriculture as a main
source of employment, income and food security for
a vast majority of its population .
• Agriculture generates 40% of gross domestic products
(GDP) , and accounts for 85 and 90% of total
employment and exports, respectively .
12/03/2022 BY GA 38
 Cont.

• The success in the sector is then strongly influenced

by topographic settings, degree of human
interferences and underlying biophysical features
Economy of Ethiopia largely based on agriculture
which accounts for 46.3% of the gross domestic
product, 83.9% of exports, and 80% of the labor force
in 2006/2007, compared to 44.9%, 76.9% and 80% in
2002/2003, and agriculture remains the Ethiopian
economy's most important sector.
• Ethiopia has great agricultural potential because of
its immense areas of fertile land, varied climate,
generally sufficient rainfall, and large labor pool.
12/03/2022 BY GA 39
 Climate
• Climate is the principal factor controlling plant growth.
• It refers to the average condition of the atmosphere
over along period, where as the term weather is used to
describe the current and temporary atmospheric
conditions.
• For successful growing of horticultural plants, various
components of climate like temperature, humidity,
wind, light, rainfall, hail and frost should be carefully
studied.
• Man can not control these environmental factors.
• It is not possible to make any change in it.
• 12/03/2022
But the effect of these factors
BY GA can be altered. 40
 Temperature
• Temperature is one of the most important components of
climate.
• It plays vital role in the production of horticultural crops.
• The different activities of plant like growth and development,
respiration, photosynthesis, transpiration, uptake of nutrients
and water and reproduction (Such as pollen viability, blossom
fertilization fruit set etc.), carbohydrate and growth
regulators balance, rate of maturation and senescence, and
quality, yield and shelf life of the edible products.
• The above function of the plant should be well when the
temperature at the optimum range.
• During high temperature plant does not perform proper
functions of growth, where in low temperature physiological
activities of the plant are stopped.
12/03/2022 BY GA 41
 Effect of low temperature

• The low temperature influenced adversely on plant.

There are many effects of low temperature i.e.
• Desiccation: Imbalance between absorption rate
and transpiration rate.
• Chilling injury: There is a disturbance in metabolic
and physiological process.
• Freezing injury: It is termed as under cooling
protoplasm coagulation.
12/03/2022 BY GA 42
 Humidity (moisture) and frost
• The atmospheric humidity plays a vital role in deciding
the amount of moisture needed to produce a fruit crops.
• In hot, dry weather enormous amount of water is lost
through transpiration.
• If the atmosphere is humid, even though hot, the
amount is much smaller and thus a site in humid belt
needs less irrigation.
• High humidity combined with high temperature also
promotes rapid growth.
• Higher yield but increase incidence of pests and diseases.
• The water requirement of plant also depends on
humidity.
12/03/2022 BY GA 43
 Light
• Light is an electro magnetic radiation which is a
form of kinetic energy.
• It comes from the sun to the earth as discrete
particles called quanta or photons.
• Light is one of the most important affecting plant
life.
• It is an integral part of the photosynthetic reaction
in that it provides the energy for the combination
of carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H­2O) in the
green cells having chlorophyll for the formation of
carbohydrates with release of oxygen.
12/03/2022 BY GA 44
 The performance of crop of growth of plants is
influenced by three aspects of light.
a) Light intensity: Light intensity refers to the number of
photons falling on a given area or to the total amount of light
which plants receive; the intensity of light varies with the
day, season, distance of equator, dust particles and water
vapour in atmosphere, slope of the land and elevation.
b) Quality of light: Refers to the length of the waves.
The visible part of spectrum of electromagnetic radiation
ranges from wavelength 390 to 730 µm (nanometer). 
It is also called photosynthetically active radiation.
c) Duration of light: Refers to the period for which light is
available.
Duration of light required isBYalso
12/03/2022 GA
known as photoperiod. 45
 cont.

•  Photoperiodism: Response of plant to length daily

exposure to the light is known as photoperiodism or
relation of the time of flowering formation of tubers,
fleshy roots etc. to the daily exposure length of period of
light.

12/03/2022 BY GA 46
 The plants are mainly grouped into three
according to duration of light required.
1. Long day plant: Those plants which require 16 hours or
more of daily exposure of light and short night 8-10 hours of
dark period for induction of flowering e.g. radish, cauliflower,
cabbage, carrot, spinach.
2. Short day plant: Those plants which require 12 hours or less
of daily exposure of light and long night 10 to 14 hours dark
period for induction of flowering. e.g. potato, sweet potato etc.
3. Day neutral plants: Day neutral plants are those plants in
which flowering are induced irrespective of duration of light.
Such plants are also known as photo insensitive plants. e.g.
tomato, chilli, okra.
4. Intermediate plants: Those plants which require definite
period of daily exposure of light.
12/03/2022 BY GAe.g. wild kidney bean. 47
 Rainfall

• This is a very important factor for horticultural crops,

and if a garden or orchard is to be established in a
new area it is essential that the pattern of rainfall in
the region be studied before any decision is taken
concerning the types of crop to be cultivated.
• Well-distributed and consistent rainfall is always
desirable for and ideal garden site.
• Rain at the time of flowering is not suitable, because
most of tropical fruit crops are sensitive to rain.
12/03/2022 BY GA 48
 Wind

• The effect of high wind on crops can be appreciable.

• Complete physical destruction may result because
little can stand against winds of the order of 100
km/hour, even large trees become uprooted.
• Some crops have quite low damage even due to
high wind speed.
• In many regions high winds can destroy the flowers,
fruits etc.
• Wind breaks can help reduce this problem.

12/03/2022 BY GA 49
 2.2. Nursery and production site selection
• Types of Nurseries: Vegetable seedlings can be produced
in containers (boxes or trays or mobile nursery wine
stripe) or on seed beds.
• Site Selection: The nursery should be readily accessible,
close to a permanent source of clean water for irrigation,
not prone to erosion and at least 50m away from
vegetable farms to avoid spread of pests and diseases.
• Avoid sites very close to major roads and factories.
• For seedbed seedling production, sites with well drained
and fertile soils free of soil borne diseases and pests
including nuisance weeds are preferred.
• Seed Source: Buy certified seeds from reputable seed
companies.
12/03/2022 BY GA 50
Mobile nursery or Wine stripe

12/03/2022 BY GA 51
 Seed sowing on
Mobile nursery or Wine stripe

12/03/2022 BY GA 52
 Mobile nursery or Wine stripe

12/03/2022 BY GA 53
 Germination Test/ Seed Rate:
To avoid seed wastage, conduct a germination test.

• Pick 100 seeds from the lot.

• Sow in a seed box or bed.
• Count number of seeds germinated after 5-7 days.
• 85%-95% means seeds are very good.
• Below 85% increase seed rate to make up for
losses.
• Discard seeds with germination rate below 60%.

12/03/2022 BY GA 54
 Seed Bed Preparation:
• Make beds 1.0m-1.2m wide x2m or
more long.
• Water the beds, cover with 4cm thick
dry grass, sawdust or rice straw; leave
for 2-3 days to reactivate spores of
disease pathogens then to sterilize soil
cover the seed bed with transparent
plastic sheets for 5-8 weeks to
sterilize the soil.
Soils/Media:
• For container grown seedlings, soils
can be sterilized by steaming.
• For both seed bed and container
grown seedlings, allow media to cool
for 2-3 days before sowing. BY GA
12/03/2022 55
12/03/2022 BY GA 56
 cont.

Mounded or Ridged Rows

12/03/2022 BY GA 57
 Sowing:
• Treat seeds with recommended seed dressing/hot
water before planting.
• Drill thinly in rows 10cm apart and cover with thin
layer of soil.
• For Wine stripe or seed trays, sow 1 or 2 seed per
cell and cover with dry grass or newsprint.
• Cover bed with dry grass (non-seeded),
transparent plastic sheet or palm fronds and
water.
• Seeds emerge within 5-7 days.
12/03/2022 BY GA 58
 Care after germination:
• Remove cover after emergence and cover seedlings
with insect proof nets.
• Prick out seedlings at first true leaf stage (about 2
weeks after sowing) and thin out weak, malformed
and oversized seedlings if seedlings are too
overcrowded.
• Nutrient Requirement: Fertile soils may not require
fertilizer application.
• Observe seedlings as they grow and if leaves are
pale yellow, apply a solution of NPK (5g/L) 1 week
after germination.
• Irrigation: Water lightly and regularly.
12/03/2022 BY GA 59
 Production site selection

• Success in vegetable production whether it is

organic or not is greatly depended on a well thought
out plant.
• Key factors that should be considered carefully
during the planning or design stage of the farming
operation are:
• site selection, water supply and quality, crop and
variety selection, and, market development.
• If the wrong decision is made with regard to anyone
of these, the operation is doomed for failure.
12/03/2022 BY GA 60
 Site Selection
• Minimizing potential production problems is
essential to all farming operations.
• This is especially true for organic producers.
• One of the most effective means of reducing
potential problems is through proper field site
selection.
• Three points should be considered when selecting
a field to produce vegetables:
• Field topography, soil type, and water availability
and quality.
12/03/2022 BY GA 61
 Field Topography –
• Topography refers to the physical characteristics of the overall
field site and includes such conditions as; contour, soil depth,
water and air drainage, and, the presence of rock out cropping
and trees.
• These characteristics can have a significant influence on crop
production and management.
• Poorly drained fields or those with low areas can become water
logged during periods of excessive rain.
• Such conditions can enhance the incidence of diseases, reduce
plant vigor and yield, and, under excessive conditions, cause plant
death.
• Brush areas or abandoned fields and pastures can harbor insects
and severe as host for plant diseases, some of which can be
vectored by insects.
12/03/2022 BY GA 62
 Soil type and quality –
• Soil type refers to the physical composition or properties of
the soil.
• Soils basically consist of decomposed mineral matter (sand,
silt, and clay) and decomposed organic matter.
• Optimum vegetable production is achieved on well-drained
sandy loam soils.
• Although vegetables can be grown on a wide range of soil
types, most vegetables are not well adapted to heavy clay soil
types.
• Soils of this type tend to have poor aeration and drainage and
can restrict root growth.
• Consequently, these soils should be avoided.
• Soil is the fundamental resource base for all agricultural
production
12/03/2022 systems. BY GA 63
 Water

• Water is the life-blood of vegetable production.

• Vegetable crops generally require more total water and
more frequent irrigation than most other agronomic
crops.
• Few vegetables can be grown successfully under dryland
conditions in most areas.
• Therefore, only fields that have easy access to an
abundant water source should be considered for
vegetable production.
• The water source should have the capability to provide
the volume required for the maximum needs of the
highest
12/03/2022
water-using crop toBYbe
GA
planted. 64
 Crop and Variety Selection –

• A factor equal to the importance of good soil health to

successful implementation of the organic production
concept is crop and variety selection.
• Pest of all types occurs in abundance in most areas.
• However, the greatest limiting factor to successful
vegetable production from a pest stand-point is the high
incidence of disease outbreaks.
• With the reduced number of tools to combat pests
available in the organic production arsenal, as compared
to conventional production, even greater importance is
placed on the use of resistant crops and varieties as the
primary
12/03/2022 means of pest control.
BY GA 65
 2.3. Design, layout and construction facilities
for nursery and production sites.
• Design - a plan or drawing produced to show the look
and function or workings of a vegetable
garden,building, garment, or other object before it is
made.
• Layout - the way in which the parts of something are
arranged or laid out.
• Construction facilities - Construction Facility means a
facility which the equipment is owned and operated by
a company involved in the process of building a
permanent structure or roadway in which the
equipment and company will be removed from the site
upon
12/03/2022
completion of the building
BY GA
process. 66
12/03/2022 BY GA 67
 Cont.
• Modern as well as traditional irrigation require intensive input and
trained human labor.
• Government as well as different supporting organization are
developing many irrigation
infrastructure which is expect for the contribution of agricultural
transformation.
• Parallel to developing the infrastructure, making agronomic practice
modern is irreplaceable.
• To maximize the profit and contribution of the sector Small Scale
Irrigation farmers have to be supported in modern, scientific
Irrigated agronomic skill and knowledge.
• For the improvement of this knowledge and skill of implementers
providing training with appropriate training material and methods
is important.
• As it known nursery management is the beginning of many crops
that can be transplanted.
12/03/2022 BY GA 68
 cont.

Garden Layout
Corn & Tomatoes
Group plants with
similar needs

Cole Crops

Taller plants
at north end
reduces
N
shading

12/03/2022 BY GA 69
 Crop Selection
• Before purchasing seeds and rising in nursery, crops and
varieties to be cultivated for that particular season should be
determined ahead.
• So it is important to select the crops based on different
criteria’s and considerations.
• Crop selection to be produced is determined by water
availability, prevailing climatic conditions, soils type and fertility,
crop rotation, the farmer preference and marketing potentials.
• Labor requirements and availability, market distances,
information and needs, transport costs and reliability, and
measures to combat pests and diseases must also be
considered as they determine the scale and frequency of
production.
• As irrigation is high investment business, selected cultivated
crops should be high value crops.
12/03/2022 BY GA 70
 Cropping Pattern
• Area to be planted for each crop has to be planned well
in advance so that all arrangements be made ahead.
• Cropping pattern indicate which crop will occupy what
part of the available area during each season for
example crop rotation such as cabbage, onion &
tomato, successive cropping i.e planting of the same
crop on several dates 3-4 months apart for a continuous
supply of particular vegetable in the market.
• It is useful to indicate the time needed for doing
planting or transplanting dates, the length of the period
that the crop will be in the field, the time for harvest as
well as for land preparation for the next crop on the
cropping
12/03/2022
program diagram.
BY GA 71
 Advantage of Raising Seedling in Nursery
• Higher rates of seed germination, especially when using expensive
hybrid seeds.
• Lower incidence of pests and diseases.
• Easy to eliminate weak and diseased plants that are not
appropriate for planting and
• To select healthy seedlings in order to obtain an even stand on the
field.
• For economize use of expensive seeds 0.5kg per ha. (To minimize
excessive seed rate comparing broadcasting 1kg per ha. ).
• It avoids gap filling to replace the missed plants, due to poor
germination.
• Greater control over seedling densities in the nursery, allowing
optional spacing, which helps to produce stronger plants with
earlier and higher yields.
12/03/2022 BY GA 72
 Nursery Site Selection

• The nursery site should be located as near as possible to

water sources or has access to irrigation water.
• The nursery site should be separated from the main
production field.
• Seedbeds site should be clean, leveled and should not be
close to any types of trees because the shadow of the
trees will affect seedlings from getting adequate sunlight.
• Additionally, the falling of leaves and barks from the
trees release chemicals that negatively affect seed
germination and seedling emergence.
• Windbreak about 10m distance is also important to
protect
12/03/2022 strong wind. BY GA 73
 Seedling Raising Methods
A. Tray method or wine stripe
• Tray method is raising seedlings in trays.
• The tray should be kept in a shelter place, especially during
unfavorable conditions.
• Seedling that raised in tray is convenient to transport to
distant fields.
To raise seedling in tray method:
• Use 10 to 12-centimeter-deep plastic or wooden boxes
Prepare the growing medium using a mixture of soil, forest
soil, sand, and compost
• with 5:3:1:1 ratio respectively for most vegetable crops.
• Use well-decomposed and sieved compost to facilitate the
emergence of seedlings.
12/03/2022 BY GA 74
 B. Seedling container (pot) method

12/03/2022 BY GA 75
 B. Seedling container (pot) method
• This method involves raising seedlings in separate pots or
containers to provide adequate nutrients and growing
medium for healthy root development and seedling
growth.
• Containers made of biodegradable material such as rolled
banana leaves, or other locally available leaves or thin
plastic pots 5 to 6 centimeters wide are generally used.
• All containers or pots must have a hole in the base for
drainage of excess water.
• The same growing medium used in the flat or tray method
can be used.
• It is also advisable to sterilize the medium.
12/03/2022 BY GA 76
 C. Seed bed
• Other common and practiced method of raising seedling
is on seedbed.
• There are different types of seed bed. They are:
• Raised seedbed: It is raised above the ground at 15-20 cm
height. It is more applicable during rainy seasons in order
to facilitate drainage and in areas with poorly drained soils
(clay soil).
• Sunken seedbeds: Made like basin with depth of about
15-20cm. Applicable in dry seasons and light drained soils
like sand, low rainfall areas and low land areas.
• Flat seedbed: prepared where the land is level with
adequate drainage system. It is applicable in areas where
there is minimum water availability.
12/03/2022 BY GA 77
12/03/2022 BY GA 78
 Factors determining the choice of type of seed bed-
a) Soil characteristics-Heavy clays are generally difficult to work
particularly during the
wet season, therefore raised beds are prepared.
Since sandy soils have less water holding
capacity, sunken beds can be used.

b) Water availability- Use raised beds in heavy rainfall areas,

whereas sunken beds will be suitable for low rainfall areas.
In areas where there may be periodic water shortage, ridge
and furrow soil formation should be used rather than broad
beds as this will give the plants better access to water.
c) Types of plants to be cultivated- Flat beds are suitable for leafy
vegetables and cucurbits.
12/03/2022 BY GA 79
 7. Steps to seedbed preparation
Step 1. Design and Lay out seed bed: -

• Prepare manageable seedbed size from east west direction either 1m x 5m or 1m X

10m and 15- 20cm high beds in 3,4,5 quadratics by using tape, spade, tracing line
etc.
• Keep 40cm-50cm space between two adjacent beds and they may be arranged in
staggered manner to check erosion as possible.
• Plough or dig soil 20cm -30cm depth until it is bring to fine tilth..

Step 2. Soil and seed treatment

• Seedling media sterilization

Sterilize the beds to kill weed seeds, insect and pathogen such as those that cause
damping-off.
• Sterilizing can be accomplished by:-
Plastic sheet cover; - Keep the beds covered for a week using, preferably, black
plastic sheet.
12/03/2022 BY GA 80
 Cont.
Step 3. Sowing, covering and mulching
• After determining amount of seeds required for a given plot
of land, it should be sown in appropriate spacing and depth.
• After sowing, cover the seed with fine soils and the surface
of the drill should then be lightly firmed.
Step 4. Mulching, Irrigation and cultivation
• For the germination of seed; moisture, oxygen and
temperature are the most important factors to be considered.
• Therefore, to get a good stocky seedlings care must be given
to the following factors-

a) Mulching immediately after sowing of the seeds until

germination (7-10days) and after germination avoiding
mulching,
12/03/2022 BY GA 81
 Mulching

12/03/2022 BY GA 82
 Organic Mulches

12/03/2022 BY GA 83
 Cont.

b) Watering using water cane for the seedlings morning or

afternoon,
c) Weed control shallow cultivation should be practiced timely.
d) Thinning out to reduce competition and diseases effect (2-
5cm apart b/n seedlings),
e) Urea fertilizer is needed 15-20 days after sowing,
• The seedbed should be irrigated immediately after sowing.
• Watering seedlings using watering cane with correct amount
of water uniformly until transplanting is an important task in
nursery management.
• Excess amount of water and incorrect method of watering will
harm seedlings.
• Excessively wet soil create conducive environment for disease
development
12/03/2022
and affect seedlings
BY GA
root growth development.84
Watering seedlings using watering cane with
correct amount of water uniformly

12/03/2022 BY GA 85
 cont.

12/03/2022 BY GA 86
 cont.

12/03/2022 BY GA 87
 The main precautions in the nursery are-
a) Avoid high soil and air moisture
b) Water the seed bed early in the morning
c) Avoid over frequent or over heavy watering
d) Avoid heavy shading
e) Avoid excess seedlings

Days to germination of some vegetable crops

- Pepper=After 9-17days
- Tomato= After 8 days
- Onion = After 15 days

12/03/2022 BY GA 88
 8. Transplanting
- To minimize transplant shock the following activities
should be done:
• Hardening-off the plants from several days to one week prior
to transplanting by reducing the amount of water and
relatively widening the frequency to slow down the growth
process and allow the young plant build up carbohydrate
reserves and root and also to avoid transplanting shock.
• Water the seed bed one day prior to transplanting (the night
before lifting) to facilitate the removal of the seedling from
the bed.
• Lift the seedlings at the proper stage of development(as
indicated in the description of the different crops).
• If possible, carry out the operation when rainfall is imminent
or under overcast or cloudy conditions
12/03/2022 BY GA 89
12/03/2022 BY GA 90
 Table . List of crops that can directly seeded
and planted in nursery for transplanting

planted in nursery
Crops that can be directly
No before being
seeded
transplanted
1 Garlic Tomato, Eggplant
2 Shallot Pepper
3 Potato Onion
4 Carrot Cabbage
5 Beet root Lettuce, Kale
6 Swiss chard, legume Cauliflower, Broccoli

12/03/2022 BY GA 91
 Days of transplanting

• Most vegetables are ready for transplanting

when they have 2-6 true leaves

- Tomato 28 –35 days

- Pepper 40 - 55 days
- Cabbage 25 - 30 days
- Onion 40-45 days
- Kale After one month

12/03/2022 BY GA 92
 CHAPTER 3.
LAND CLEARING AND PREPARATION

3.1. Clearing the land

• If you are lucky enough to have enough land to plant a
large amount of crops or maybe if you have a field that
has been mismanaged for a long time and you just want to
start over you have a lot of options for clearing the area
from tall grasses and preparing it for planting.
• The first thing is we aren’t talking about converting a
wooded lot or one with a large amount of really tall brush.
• If you have small trees and brush that needs to be
removed then you are probably best off to rent a backhoe
or12/03/2022
even a dozer and clear the
BY GA
land and level it before you
93
 Discing Your Soil to Add Fertilizer
• Once your debris has been cleared and your soil has been
turned you can inspect the quality of your soil and decide
what you will do next.
• Most people turn under some manure and that requires a
spreader attachment for your tractor.
• Next you can begin discing the soil to remove clumps and
mix your manure into the soil.
• Some people will allow the soil to rest for a while between
the first and subsequent disc passes.
• This will depend on your soil quality and moisture content.
• Moist soil is always easier to work with and its a good idea
to get the work done as early as you can that way you have
additional time to make more passes with your disc or a
chain
12/03/2022harrow. BY GA 94
 3.2. Preparing the land for planting
Land preparation
• When establishing a new plantation, certain
actions need to be implemented to ensure the
long term success of the plantation.
• One of these actions involve the initial land
preparation which should be done prior to
transplanting of the plant material (tissue culture-
derived plants).
• The purpose of land preparation is to provide the
necessary soil conditions which will enhance the
successful establishment of the young tissue
12/03/2022 BY GA 95
 Tilling

12/03/2022 BY GA 96
 cont.

12/03/2022 BY GA 97
 cont.

Raised Beds

12/03/2022 BY GA 98
Critical factors to consider during this planning
exercise are summarised as follows:

- Availability and quality of irrigation water;

- Field selection;
- Mechanical actions to be implemented;
- Chemical needs for pre-plant soil improvement;
- Tools and equipment needed for cultivation;
- Labour needs;
- Irrigation design and installation;
- Leaching schedule;
- Hole preparation;
- Financial requirements and
- Time schedule.
12/03/2022 BY GA 99
 1. Field selection
• The area selected for the establishment of the vegetation can
influence the cost of land preparation to the extent that it
may not be viable to proceed with the development at all.
• The authors' aim is to highlight the critical areas to be
considered when selecting the land for the establishment of a
new vegetation.
Availability of water
• Although not always realised, vegetation requires a rather
large quantity of water for sustainable growth.
Critical factors regarding water for irrigation purposes are:
(i) the sustainability of the water source,
(ii) the quantity of water available for irrigation,
(iii) the distance to the field, and
(iv) the quality of the water.BY GA
12/03/2022 100
 1.2 Soil depth
• Besides the importance of root development, soil
depth also influences drainage and leaching
possibilities.
• Any obstructive layers must be evaluated to
determine whether they will influence root
development and whether they can be corrected.

12/03/2022 BY GA 101
 cont.

Dig trench
www.himalayanacademy.com

1 ft. wide

1 ft. deep

12/03/2022 BY GA 102
 2. Physical land preparation

• Once a suitable area for establishing the plantation

is selected and the planning operation is finalised,
the actual preparation can be activated.
• These activities are divided to structure and pace
the implementation process in order to be ready
for planting at the most suitable time, according to
the specific regional climatic conditions.

12/03/2022 BY GA 103
 2.1 Mechanical field preparation
• The mechanical or initial soil preparation concerns
mainly the preparation of a field for further
detailed preparation such as irrigation system
installation, hole preparation, etc. Actions, if
applicable to the area, include:
• (i) debushing/bush clearing;
(ii) removal of stones and rocks;
(iii) ripping; and
(iv) levelling of the soil.

12/03/2022 BY GA 104
 2.2 Irrigation system installation
• The type of irrigation system to be used will be
determined by the availability of water,
topographical and soil conditions.
• When the initial soil preparation is completed, the
installation of the required irrigation system will be
implemented according to the prescribed design.

12/03/2022 BY GA 105
 2.3 Soil improvement
• The scheduling of the soil improvement
programme will depend on the date grower, as
certain applications could be combined with the
initial actions of soil preparation.
• If new soils are considered, the soil improvement
programme will mostly deal with:
• (i) the application of organic matter; and/or
(ii) the elimination of soil salinity.

12/03/2022 BY GA 106
 2.3.1 Organic material
• In general, most soils are poor in organic matter content
and the improvement of this situation plays an important
role in soil fertility.
• Some of the advantages of a higher humus content in
the soil are summarized as follows:
• Enhances crumb formation which improves the
respiration of the roots;
- Increases the water infiltration rate;
- Increases the water holding capacity;
- Lowers soil compaction and crust formation; and
- Limits the harmful effects of alkalinity and improves the
leaching
12/03/2022
of salts. BY GA 107
 Organic Fertilizers
• Organic fertilizers such as bone-meal and rock
phosphate must be converted to a chemical form
that plants can utilize.
• This takes time, so nutrients are not available as
quickly as chemical sources, however, they are
available for a longer period of time.
• The danger of root burn is much lower with organic
fertilizers.

12/03/2022 BY GA 108
 Cont.
The nutrient content of manure varies based on the source
animal and its diet.

In addition to nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, you

will likely get a wider variety of nutrients from manure
than with commercial fertilizers.

 Beneficial bacteria, fungi, and other organisms that

renew soil, and organic matter are also introduced into the
soil with manure, improving soil texture.

12/03/2022 BY GA 109
 Sources of Organic Matter

Compost Manure

12/03/2022 BY GA 110
 Make Your Own Compost

I would highly recommend that every garden make a compost

pile. Reduce yard waste, make valuable compost.

12/03/2022 BY GA 111
 Organic Disadvantages
 Disadvantages of using manure include handling, the large
quantity required for nutrient levels comparable to chemical
fertilizers, and the introduction of viable weed seeds in
horse manure.

 Also, fresh manures have high soluble salt concentrations

that can burn plants, so it is best to let them compost before
use.

12/03/2022 BY GA 112
 CHAPTER 4.
PLANTING OF VEGETABLE CROPS
4.1. Maintaining soil moisture for sowing

Soil moisture
• Adequate moisture in the seedbed during germination and stand
establishment is crucial.
• There needs to be sufficient moisture so seeds can imbibe water
needed for germination.
• However, there should not be so much water in the soil that lack of
oxygen becomes a problem.
• Under conditions of excessive water and insufficient oxygen, seeds rot,
seedlings dampen-off excessively, and any plants that manage to
survive are usually stunted and weak.

12/03/2022 BY GA 113
 cont.

Soil moisture

12/03/2022 BY GA 114
 4.2. Determination of planting time and plant
spacing.
How Much to Plant
• The Vegetable Planting Guide can be used to determine the
approximate amount of crop to plant for the desired yield,
the amount of seed or number of transplants required for
that amount of crop, and proper spacing between plants in a
row.
• In intensive, raised-bed gardens, use the in-row figures
between all plants; i.e., use equidistant spacing between
plants.
• Sow seeds to a depth three to five times the diameter of the
seed.
• For mid-summer plantings, dry soils may require you to sow
up to twice this depth.
12/03/2022 BY GA 115
 .

Plant spacing
• In efficient vegetable production appropriate plant spacing is
required. Plant spacing involves two distinct factors, namely:
plant arrangement: the spatial distribution of the plants
(essentially distance between the rows);
plant density: the number of plants/m2 .
• In practice, density is much more important than plant
arrangement.
• As plant density increases, the yield per plant falls caused by the
competition for light, moisture and nutrients.
• When the plant is a single product (e.g. onions, carrots), changing
the plant density also changes the size of the individual product.
• At low plant densities, for example, individual carrots and onions
are large, while at high plant densities the individual carrot or
onion
12/03/2022becomes much smaller. BY GA 116
 Plant spacing

12/03/2022 BY GA 117
 Determination of planting time

• Vegetables differ not only in size, color, shape, and

taste, but in their preferred growing conditions, too.
• Understanding when to plant vegetables depends on
your climate and conditions—and the vegetable itself.
• Relative to climate, vegetables are divided into two
groups: cool season and warm season.
• It’s important to sow your vegetable crops at the
right time of year – whether it’s directly outside in
the ground or indoors with heat – and to harvest
them at the right time, when they’re at the peak of
their tenderness and taste.
12/03/2022 BY GA 118
 What are the factors that determine seed
germination?
• Seeds are designed to spread throughout the environment and grow
into new plants through the process called seed germination.
• This process causes a seed to sprout.
• As seeds absorb water, stored food materials become hydrated.
• Enzymes in the seed become active, producing energy for the
growing seed.
• The root (or radicle) is the first part of the seedling to emerge.
• It is the first indication of that a seed is viable, meaning it is possible
for it to grow into a healthy plant.
• Roots provide all the necessary nutrients, minerals, and water for the
growing shoot.
• Cotyledons are the parts that form into the first leaves of the
seedling.
12/03/2022 BY GA 119
 Vegetable Plant propagation
• It is the process of growing new plants from a variety
of sources: seeds, cuttings, and other plant parts.
• Plant propagation can also refer to the artificial or
natural dispersal of plants.
Propagation Methods
• Plants are propagated by two methods:
1. Sexual propagation or seed propagation.
2. Asexual or vegetative propagation by vegetative plant
parts like root, stem, leaf etc.
Seed propagation
• Seeds can be defined as a dormant plant which
develops into a complete BYplant
12/03/2022 GA subjected to required
120
 Germination of seed –
• The activation of the metabolic machinery of the embryo leading
in the emergence of a new seeding plant is known as germination.
• Germination is essentially a quickening of the growth of the
embryo.
• As germination proceeds, the growing points of the radical and
plumule divide rather rapidly.
• Usually the radical emerges from the seed coat first, proceeds
downward, and develops into the root system, the plumule
proceeds upward and develops into the shoot system.
• Germination is entirely a food utilization process.
Processes going on in seed during germination are:
1) Absorption of water; 2) Secretion of enzymes and hormones; 3)
Hydrolysis of stored food into soluble form; and 4) Translocation
of soluble foods and hormones to the growing points.
12/03/2022 BY GA 121
 Advantages of Sexual Propagation:-
1) This is very simple and easy method of propagation.
2) Some species of vegetables which cannot be propagated by
asexual means should be propagated by this method. E.g.
lettuce, carrot, onion, Tomato etc.
3) Hybrid seeds can be developed by this method.
4) New variety of crops are developed only by sexual method of
propagation.
5) Root stocks for budding and grafting can be raised by this
method.
6) The plants propagated by this method are long lived and are
resistant to water stress.
7) Transmission of viruses can be prevented by sexual method.
8) Seed can be transported and stored for longer time for
propagation.
12/03/2022 BY GA 122
 Disadvantages of sexual propagation:
1) Characteristics of seedling propagated by this
method are not genetically true to type to that of
their mother plant.
2) Plants propagated by sexual method requires long
period for fruiting.
3) Plants grow very high, so they are difficult for
intercultural practices like spraying, harvesting etc.
4) The plants which have no seeds cannot be
propagated by this method.

12/03/2022 BY GA 123
 Asexual propagation
• It is also called as vegetative propagation as it
involves only vegetative parts without any
sexual plant parts.
• The plant parts like leaf, stem, root and other
root producing plant organs are used.
• The new individual propagated through this
method is true to type.
• The commercially important fruit crops are
propagated by vegetative method.

12/03/2022 BY GA 124
12/03/2022 BY GA 125
 cont.

12/03/2022 BY GA 126
 cont.

12/03/2022 BY GA 127
 cont.

12/03/2022 BY GA 128
 cont.

12/03/2022 BY GA 129
 cont.

12/03/2022 BY GA 130
 Types of vegetative propagation

1. Plants parts separated from mother plants.(Cuttings)

Types of cuttings:
A) Stem cutting:
1) Hardwood cutting pepper 2) Semi - hardwood
cutting - Tomato 3) Softwood cutting - sweet potato
B) Leaf cutting
C) Root cutting. sweet potato
2. Still attached to mother plant.
A) Layering: 1) Simple layering - 2) Tip layering - 3)
Mound layering - 4) Serpentine layering –
B) Air layering (Gootee layering) (Marcottage)
C) Suckers - tomato
D) Runners - ginger
12/03/2022 BY GA 131
12/03/2022 BY GA 132
 Cont.
3. Separated modified parts from mother plants:
A) Separation: 1) Corm - 2) Bulb - onion
B) Division of plant parts: 1) Stem Tubers -
Potato 2) Tuberous roots - Asparagus 3)
Rhizome - Ginger
4. Grafting: A) Approach grafting / inarching - B)
Stone grafting - C) Side grafting - D) Root
grafting - E) Bridge grafting - F) Butters
grafting - G) Cleft grafting - H) Softwood
grafting - I) Tongue grafting / whip grafting –
5. Budding: A) Shield / ‘T’ budding - B) Patch
budding - C) Ring budding - D) Flute budding
E) Chip budding F) Forkert budding
6. Tissue Culture – most vegetables

12/03/2022 BY GA 133
12/03/2022 BY GA 134
 cont.

12/03/2022 BY GA 135
 cont.

12/03/2022 BY GA 136
 cont.

12/03/2022 BY GA 137
 cont.

12/03/2022 BY GA 138
 cont.

12/03/2022 BY GA 139
12/03/2022 BY GA 140
 cont.

12/03/2022 BY GA 141
 cont.

12/03/2022 BY GA 142
 cont.

12/03/2022 BY GA 143
12/03/2022 BY GA 144
 Advantages of Asexual propagation
1. The horticultural crops which do not produce viable seeds
are propagated by vegetative method.
2. Most of the important fruit crops are cross pollinated and
are highly heterozygous.
When propagated through seeds, the progenies shows large
variation, so vegetative propagation is remedy for these
crops.
3. The asexual propagation method gives true to type plants.
4. The vegetative way propagated plants bear fruits early.
5. In case of fruit crops where root stocks are used, the root
stocks impart insect or disease resistance to the plant.

12/03/2022 BY GA 145
 Cont.

6. Vegetative propagation helps to alter the size

of the plant. i.e. dwarfing effect. This helps
for spraying, intercropping & harvesting of
crops easy and economical.
7. By grafting method different variety of fruit
crop can be grown & harvested.
8. Inferior quality fruit plants can be converted
into good quality plants.
9. By means of bridge grafting a repairing of
injured plants can be done.
12/03/2022 BY GA 146
 Disadvantages of the vegetative propagation:
1. By vegetative propagation new variety can not be
developed.
2. It is an expensive method of propagation and
required specialized skill.
3. The life span of vegetatively propagated plants is
short as compared to sexually propagated plants.
4. As all the plants are homozygous the whole
plantation may get attacked by a particular pest or
disease.
5. Viral diseases could be transferred through
vegetative parts.
12/03/2022 BY GA 147
 cont.

12/03/2022 BY GA 148
 Vegetable seed technology
Introduction
• Although some vegetables like potatoes are vegetatively
propagated, most are established from seeds.
• Using quality seeds is a prerequisite for successful vegetable
production.
• Although many of the F-1 hybrid seeds used today are more
expensive than the open-pollinated seeds used in the past,
vegetable seeds are still a rather small investment compared
to other production costs.
• It is generally unwise to cut costs by saving a few dollars on
seeds of a substandard cultivar or by purchasing lower
quality seeds.
• Cutting corners on seed costs will generally end up costing
even
12/03/2022more because of lost revenues
BY GA from lower yields. 149
 Seed Companies
• There are many companies that sell vegetable seeds.
• However, the number of companies that actually grow their
own seeds and develop new cultivars has been steadily
decreasing over the past 50 years.
• Like other industries, the seed industry is rapidly becoming
highly specialized.
• For example, some companies specialize in retail sales.
• Of these companies, there are those that specialize in the
home garden trade and others who deal with commercial
growers.
• Some seed companies specialize in seed production and
cultivar development and do not retail the seeds they produce,
while other companies are involved in all aspects of the seed
trade.
12/03/2022 BY GA 150
 Certified Seeds
• Many states have seed certification programs.
• Certified seeds are carefully monitored during
production and are certified to be true-to-type, of
high germinability, and to contain low percentages
of weed seeds and inert matter.
• Generally, only agronomic crops are entered into
seed certification programs, however, vegetables
may also be included in the program.

12/03/2022 BY GA 151
 Seed Production and Storage
• As a general rule, seed storage life decreases by half for every
5 degree C rise in temperature from 0 to 50 degree C, or for
every 1% increase in moisture content from 5 to 14%.
• Another helpful rule is that the % relative humidity + the
temperature in degrees F should be kept below 100 during
seed storage.
• Seeds are hygroscopic and can gain or lose moisture from the
air.
• If seeds are stored at moisture contents greater than 18%,
damage can occur from heat buildup due to high respiration.
• Between 10 and 18%, fungi and mold can grow on seeds.
• Between 9 and 14% moisture content, insects may be active.
12/03/2022 BY GA 152
 CHAPTER 5.
VEGETABLE CROPS MANAGEMENT UNDER
FIELD CONDITIONS
5.1. Watering
• Lack of water is the greatest single factor that lowers
vegetable yield.
• Vegetables are composed of 80-95% water and they have to
produce the remaining 5-20% of their weight through
photosynthesis.
• Aside from its importance for biomass, water is also
essential for plant growth and development.
• A plant usually absorbs several times more water than the
amount incorporated in its cells.
• Most of it is lost through stomate during transpiration.
12/03/2022 BY GA 153
 Water content commonly found invarious
plant parts
Plant Part Fresh Weight (%)
Cucumber fruits 96
Lettuce head 94
Cabbage head 90
Potato tuber 79
Tomato leaves 85-95
Corn leaves 65-82
Carrot roots 88
Asparagus tips 88
Tomato fruit 94
12/03/2022
Sweet corn seeds 85
BY GA 154
 Cont.
• Plants get water from several sources for its growth.
• However, the amount of water available to plants in the
tropics is primarily determined by rainfall.
• Dew and fog can also provide moisture for crop growth
in dry areas.
• During the rainy months in many areas of the tropics,
there is more water than is needed.
• During the dry months, there is hardly any water for
growing crops, thus irrigation is necessary.
• Drought occurs when there is too little water.
• Waterlogging or flooding occurs when there is too much
water which does not drain fast enough.
• The majority of small farmers growing vegetable as a
secondary crop in developing countries, still rely on
rainfall
12/03/2022 for their water needs.
BY GA 155
 Crop Requirements and Responses
• Precise irrigation requirements can be predicted based
on crop water use and effective precipitation values.
• Lack of water influences crop growth in many ways.
• Its effect depends on the severity, duration, and time
of stress in relation to the stage of growth.
• Nearly all vegetable crops are sensitive to drought
during two periods: during harvest and two to three
weeks before harvest.
• More than 30 different vegetable crops are grown
commercially.
• Although all vegetables benefit from irrigation, each
class responds differently.
12/03/2022 BY GA 156
 Leafy vegetables

• Cabbage, lettuce, and spinach are generally planted

at or near field capacity.
• Being shallow rooted, these crops benefit from
frequent irrigation throughout the season.
• As leaf expansion relates closely to water availability,
these crops, especially cabbage and lettuce, are
particularly sensitive to drought stress during the
period of head formation through harvest.
• Overwatering or irregular watering can result in
burst heads.

12/03/2022 BY GA 157
 Leafy vegetables

12/03/2022 BY GA 158
 Root, tuber, and bulb vegetables
• Sweet potato, potato, carrot, and onion crop yields
depend on the production and translocation of
carbohydrates from the leaf to the root or bulb.
• The most sensitive stage of growth generally occurs as
these storage organs enlarge.
• Carrots require an even and abundant supply of water
throughout the season.
• Stress causes small, woody, and poorly flavored roots.
• Uneven irrigation can lead to misshapen or split roots in
carrots, second growth in potatoes, and early bulbing in
onions.
12/03/2022 BY GA 159
 Fruiting vegetables

• Cucumbers, melons, pumpkins and squashes, lima

beans, snap beans, peas, peppers, sweet corn, and
tomatoes are most sensitive to drought stress at
flowering and as fruits and seeds develop.
• Fruit set on these crops can be seriously reduced if
water becomes limited.
• An adequate supply of water during the period of
fruit enlargement can reduce the incidence of fruit
cracking and blossom-end rot in tomatoes.
• Irrigation is often reduced as fruit and seed crops
mature.
12/03/2022 BY GA 160
 Cont.
Table . Critical Periods of Water Need (by crop)
CROP CRITICAL PERIOD
Asparagus Brush
Beans, lima Pollination and pod development
Beans, snap Flowering and pod enlargement
Broccoli  Head development
Cabbage Head development
Carrots Root enlargement
Cauliflower Head development
Corn Silking and tasseling, ear development
Cucumbers Flowering and fruit development
Eggplants Flowering and fruit development
Greens Continuous Lettuce Head development
Melons (musk melons& watermelons)  Flowering and fruit development

Bulb enlargement
Onions (dry)
Peas Seed enlargement and flowering
Peppers Flowering and fruit developmen
Potatoes (white) Tuber set and tuber enlargement
Potatoes (sweet)  Root enlargement
Radishes Root enlargement
Spinach Continuous
Squash (summer) Bud development and flowering
Tomatoes  Early flowering, fruit set, and enlargement
Turnips Root enlargement
12/03/2022 BY GA 161
 Factors to Consider in Scheduling Irrigations

• There is no simple method for scheduling irrigations

accurately because all the above factors interact to
determine water loss.
• Research is currently under way to develop
improved methods in scheduling irrigations.
• The following factors should be kept in mind when
deciding when and how much to irrigate.
• Soils vary greatly in water-holding capacity and
infiltration rate.
• Water loss from plants is much greater on clear, hot,
windy days than on cool, overcast days.
12/03/2022 BY GA 162
 Maintain proper soil structure and fertility
• Proper soil structure permits optimum infiltration
and water holding.
• Proper soil fertility encourages the best plant
growth and use of available soil moisture.
• Adopting tillage methods, such as minimum or
no tillage, that maintain or enhance soil organic
matter will improve the water-holding capacity
of droughty soils.
• Not all vegetable crops lend themselves to
minimum tillage or no-tillage systems.
12/03/2022 BY GA 163
 5.2. Mulching
• The use of plastic mulching is very popular in many
vegetable-growing areas.
• A non-transparent plastic is used to impede the
transmission of photosynthetic radiation through the
plastic to the weeds so that the development of weeds
is then arrested.
• Advantages are also better moisture conservation as a
reduction in irrigation needs means a reduction in
nitrogen leaching, a better soil structure conservation,
and an increase in the vegetable yield in an arid climate.
• Inconveniences are mainly the price of plastic (although
it can be reused) as well as management costs.
12/03/2022 BY GA 164
 5.3. Hoeing
• A hoe is an ancient and versatile agricultural and
horticultural hand tool used to shape soil,
remove weeds, clear soil, and harvest root crops.
• Shaping the soil includes piling soil around the base
of plants (hilling), digging narrow furrows (drills)
and shallow trenches for planting seeds or bulbs.
• Weeding with a hoe includes agitating the surface
of the soil or cutting foliage from roots, and
clearing soil of old roots and crop residues.
• Hoes for digging and moving soil are used to
harvest root crops such as potatoes.
12/03/2022 BY GA 165
 5.4. Weed control
• Vegetable growing imposes a particular weed-management
approach.
• Vegetable areas are usually small, but produce high-value crops
that are commercially and gastronomically appreciated.
• Fruit and leaf crops provide important income for farmers and
workers at local or regional levels.
• Providing evidence of small surfaces used for growing vegetables,
in Spain for the year 1999 the area covered 395 300 ha, with a
production of about 12 million tonnes.
• Irrigation is another typical characteristic of these crops in
Mediterranean or arid areas.
• The type of irrigation used also conditions weed management
because of the many systems available: traditional irrigation
through flooding or by furrows, and the more modern sprinkling,
drip and infiltration irrigation. BY GA
12/03/2022 166
 5.5. Thinning
• Growing vegetables from seeds is much less expensive than
buying nursery seedlings, but it's also slightly more work.
• Many vegetable seedlings are very tiny, and they are sown
simply by sprinkling the seeds in loose rows along the soil.
• As they germinate and sprout, the seedlings are very tightly
spaced, and a routine duty for gardeners is to systematically
pluck out enough seedlings to allow the remaining plants
plenty of room to grow.
• Plants started in pots are usually not a problem because
you can separate them when it's time to transplant
outdoors.
• Plants that are direct seeded in the ground and especially
seeds of root vegetables are another matter.
• These plants almost always require thinning.
12/03/2022 BY GA 167
 Benefits of Thinning Vegetable Seedlings

• Thinning seedlings produces healthier plants and

higher yields by:
• Allowing room for proper growth
• Reducing competition for water and nutrients
from nearby plants
• Allowing for good air circulation between plants
Some larger seeds, like radishes and
parsnips, can be spaced at planting, but you don't
always get 100 percent germination and you could
wind up with spaces within your rows.
12/03/2022 BY GA 168
 When to Thin Vegetable Seedlings
• Seedlings are usually thinned once they have one to two sets of
true leaves.
• Most will be 2 to 3 inches tall by then and easy enough to grasp
and pull.
• However pulling the unwanted seedlings often brings up all the
neighboring seedlings, even the ones you wanted to leave growing.
• It is easier to snip the extras at the soil line.
• This also keeps them cleaner and ready to rinse and toss in a salad.
• If you prefer to pull your extra seedlings, thinning while the soil is
damp will help you pull just the excess plants while leaving the
ones you want to keep.
• It won't work every time, but it does make it easier to slip them
out of the soil without turning up everything nearby.

12/03/2022 BY GA 169
 5.6. Earthing up
• Hilling, earthing up or ridging is the technique in agriculture
and horticulture of piling soil up around the base of a plant.
• It can be done by hand (usually using a hoe), or with
powered machinery, typically a tractor attachment.
• Hilling buries the normally above-ground part of the plant,
promoting desired growth.
• This may encourage the development of additional tubers
(as with potatoes), force the plant to grow longer stems (
leeks), or for some crops (chicory, leeks, asparagus etc.) this
blanching technique keeps the stems or shoots pale and
tender, or influences their taste.
• Hilling may also be used to stabilize the stems of crops
which are easily disturbed by wind.
12/03/2022 BY GA 170
 5.7. Stalking

• Structural supports are often helpful and even

required devices when growing vegetables
that have heavy fruits, climbing tendrils or
fragile stems.
• Different types of structural supports can be
used, depending on the type of plant being
grown and many of them can be made from
repurposed materials or simple materials
available locally.
12/03/2022 BY GA 171
 Whatever support you choose, ensure the
following things:
• It is sufficiently high or wide enough to support the
vegetable plant.
• It is firmly placed so that it cannot fall on the growing plants.
• It is free of toxic paint, varnish, coatings, etc., that might
harm the plant, soil or consumer of the plant.
• Avoid using wood treated with chemicals intended to help it
withstand outdoor conditions.
• Consider its aesthetic appeal in the garden - what is
aesthetic is in the eye of the beholder, so it's up to you.
• Stakes, tripods, tepees, etc., can be decorated on top with
ornaments, woven yarn, twig balls, and the like, to increase
their aesthetic appeal.
12/03/2022 BY GA 172
 Some of the more common styles of support
• Single bamboo pole - This is good for vegetables grown in
pots, such as tomatoes and capsicum (bell peppers).
• Use twine, yarn, covered wire, etc., as ties to keep the stem
against the pole.
• Wooden garden stakes - this is the traditional structural aid.
• You can purchase these ready-made or make your own from
scrap wood.
• Always use untreated wood.
• Tepee designs - This design is easy to make from bamboo
stakes, thin branches, wire rods or similar items.
• Wire mesh - Plants with tendrils, such as peas and beans, will
happily climb up a backdrop of wire mesh.
• Plastic mesh can be substituted for wire mesh.
12/03/2022 BY GA 173
 5.8. Applying fertilizers
Fertilizer Management
• Fertilizers applied to the seedbed must be mixed with the soil
before, not after sowing.
• This is necessary because the seedlings must be able to use
the fertilizer immediately after it has developed the root
system that absorbs the nutrients.
• Seedlings stay in the seedbed for only 20-30 days, on the
average.
• Also, mixing of the fertilizer with the soil before sowing
promotes even distribution of fertilizer and prevents fertilizer
injury.
• Fertilizer in granular form that are applied late may not be
available to the seedling immediately and may cause
temporary
12/03/2022 nutrient deficiency.BY GA 174
 Vegetable Harvest Guide
• Harvesting vegetables at the right stage of maturity
ensures the best taste and quality.
• Many vegetables should be picked throughout the
summer to maintain plant productivity.
• The time, frequency, and method of harvesting vary
depending on species.
• Vegetables, such as standard sweet corn, have a very
small harvest period.
• Others, such as many of the root crops, can remain
in the garden for several weeks with little effect on
their taste.
• Some vegetables, like summer squash, have to be
harvested almost daily.
• Other plants, such as tomatoes, can be harvested
on a weekly basis.
12/03/2022 BY GA 175
 cont.

12/03/2022 BY GA 176
 CHAPTER - 6 -
MAJOR VEGETABLE CROPS

Perennial Vegetable Crops

• Asparagus for stems
• Rhubarb for stems/petioles
• Artichoke for Edible tubers
• Cassava for Edible tubers
• Taro for Edible tubers

12/03/2022 BY GA 177
 Perennial vegetables

• Perennial vegetables are vegetables that are

perennial, meaning the plants can live for more
than two years.
• Some well known perennial vegetables from the
temperate regions of the world include asparagus,
artichoke and rhubarb.
• In the tropics, cassava and taro are grown as
vegetables, and these plants can live many years.
• Some perennial plants are cultivated as annuals in
order to minimize pest pressure e.g., potato,
(Solanum tuberosum).
• Perennial vegetables are an integral part of many
cultural diets around the world, particularly in
tropical agriculture.
12/03/2022 BY GA 178
 Asparagus
Description
• Asparagus, Asparagus officinalis, is an herbaceous perennial plant
in the family Asparagaceae which is grown for its young shoots, or
spears, which are eaten as a vegetable.
• The asparagus plant is tall with scale like leaves emerging from the
underground stem (rhizome) and has stout stems and feathery
foliage.
• The flowers are bell shaped and occur alone or in pairs.
• They are green-white to yellow in color.
• After flowering, a round red berry is formed with 1 to 6 black seeds.
• Asparagus can live for 20 or more years and can attain a height
between 100–150 cm (39.4–59.1 in).
• Asparagus originates from Europe, northern Africa, and western
Asia.

12/03/2022 BY GA 179
 Asparagus officinalis

12/03/2022 BY GA 180
 Cont.

Uses
• Asparagus spears can be eaten raw
or cooked.
• They are low in calories and very
low in sodium.
• Asparagus is a particularly good
source of vitamin B6, calcium,
magnesium , zinc, vitamin A,
vitamin C, vitamin E, vitamin K,
thiamin, riboflavin, rutin, niacin,
folic acid, iron, phosphorus, Commonly planted as
potassium, copper, manganese, 1-year-old crowns
selenium, chromium, dietary fiber,
and protein.

12/03/2022 BY GA 181
12/03/2022 BY GA 182
 Propagation

• Basic requirements Asparagus grows best in regions

with hot days and cool nights and requires 90–150
days of cold temperature to break dormancy.
• It will grow in most soils as long as they are well-
draining and will grow optimally at a pH between
6.5 and 7.0.
• Asparagus should be planted in a sunny location in
the home garden and it is best to avoid low lying
areas as a late frost will cause damage to newly
emerged spears.

12/03/2022 BY GA 183
 Rhubarb (Rheum rhabarbarum)
• Grown for stems/petioles
• Roots and leaves inedible
• Rhubarb is a rhizomatous perennial
whose leafstalks (technically leaf • Very large plant, needs
petioles but often referred to as space
‘sticks’ or 'stems') are grown as a
vegetable but used mainly as a
dessert.
•  It crops over a long period,
completely hardy and grows in any
garden soil.
• Common name: Rhubarb
Botanical name:
• Rheum rhabarbarum
• The roots and leaves contain toxins
and are inedible.

12/03/2022 BY GA 184
 Cultivation notes
• Any fertile garden soil can be used for rhubarb, as
long as it is well drained and in full sun.
• Crowns (‘sets’) can be cropped for ten or more
years, though division may be necessary after
about five years.
Preparing the soil
• Although the large foliage can help smother
weeds, the ground should be free from perennial
weeds before planting.
• Dig in one to two bucketfuls of well-rotted
organic matter, such as manure, before planting.
12/03/2022 BY GA 185
 Propagation
• Seed Sow seed in spring (March/April) 2.5cm (1in) deep in a
seedbed or individually in modules.
• If in a seedbed, thin seedlings to 15cm (6in) apart, choosing
the most vigorous seedlings. 
• The resulting plants will be more variable than named
clones.
•  Plant out in autumn or the following spring.
• Division will guarantee a plant identical to the parent and is
the most common method of propagation.
•  It is also good practice to divide established crowns about
once every five years if they have become weak or
overcrowded.
•  Lift crowns between autumn and early spring (usually in
November).
12/03/2022 BY GA 186
 Jerusalem Artichoke
• Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus L.) is familiar
to many as a weed, but has some potential as a crop
plant.
• Native to the central regions of North America, the plant
can be grown successfully throughout the U.S. under a
variety of temperature and rainfall regimes.
• Several North American Indian tribes used Jerusalem
artichoke as food prior to the arrival of European settlers.
• The explorer Champlain took Jerusalem artichokes from
North America to France in 1605. By the mid 1600s it
was widely used as a human food and livestock feed
there.

12/03/2022 BY GA 187
 Helianthus tuberosus

Tubers
12/03/2022 BY GA 188
 Seed Preparation and Germination:
• Tubers sprout approximately 10 to 17 days after planting,
but soil temperatures must be at least 44°F before
germination begins.
• Jerusalem artichokes are propagated vegetatively by the
use of sound, disease-free small tubers or pieces of
tubers weighing approximately 2 oz and having at least 2
to 3 buds each.
Method and Rate of Seeding:
• Recommended planting rates of 1,000 lb/acre of seed
stock tubers yield between 10,000 to 14,000 plants/acre.
• The tubers and tuber pieces are cut to approximately I to
2 oz in size and planted 12 to 24 in. apart with 30 to 36
in. between rows.
12/03/2022 BY GA 189
 Cassava, (Manihot esculenta)

• Cassava, (Manihot esculenta), also

called manioc, mandioca, or yuca,
tuberous edible plant of the spurge
family (Euphorbiaceae) from the
American tropics.
• It is cultivated throughout the
tropical world for its tuberous roots,
from which cassava flour, breads, 
tapioca, a laundry starch, and an 
alcoholic beverage are derived.

12/03/2022 BY GA 190
 Cont.

• Cassava is a perennial plant
with conspicuous, almost
palmate (fan-shaped) leaves
 resembling those of the
related castor-oil plant but
more deeply parted into five to
nine lobes.
• The fleshy roots are
reminiscent of dahlia tubers.
• Different varieties range from
low herbs to branching shrubs
 and slender unbranched trees.
• Some are adapted to dry areas
of alkaline soil and others to
acid mud banks along rivers.
12/03/2022 BY GA 191
 Cont.
• Cassava is a good source of dietary
fibre as well as vitamin C, thiamin, 
folic acid, manganese, and potassium.
Food items such as the gelatinous fufu
 of West Africa and the bammy of 
Jamaica come from cassava.
• Additional cassava products include an
alcoholic beverage known as kasiri
that is made by Indians in 
South America, the powdery casabe
cakes of Yucatán, and tapioca, the only
cassava product on northern markets.

12/03/2022 BY GA 192
 Cont.
• Raw cassava contains cyanide, which is toxic
to ingest, so it is vital to prepare it correctly.
• Also, there are two types of cassava: sweet
and bitter.
• Bitter cassava is hardier but has a much
higher cyanide content.
• Most of the cassava used in the United
States is sweet.
• In the U.S., people grind cassava down to
make tapioca, which they eat as a pudding
or use as a thickening agent.

12/03/2022 BY GA 193
 Taro  (Colocasia esculenta )
• Taro–also called Dasheen–is a perennial tropical or subtropical plant commonly
grown for its starchy but sweet flavored tuber.
• Taro is always served cooked, not raw.
• The taro tuber is cooked like a potato, has a doughy texture, and can be used to
make flour.
• Young taro leaves and stems can be eaten after boiling twice to remove the acrid
flavor. Cook taro leaves like spinach. A paste called poi is made from the taro root.
Description.
 Taro is a perennial herbaceous plant that grows from 3 to 6 feet tall.
• Its leaves are light green, elongated, and heart-shaped similar to an elephant’s
ear.
• Tubers are spherical and about the size of a tennis ball often covered with
brownish skin and hairs; the flesh is pinkish purple, beige or white.
• Each plant grows one large tuber often surrounded by several smaller tubers.
• Taro requires seven months of hot weather to mature.

12/03/2022 BY GA 194
 Taro  (Colocasia esculenta )

12/03/2022 BY GA 195
 Taro  (Colocasia esculenta )

12/03/2022 BY GA 196
 How to Grow and Harvest Taro
• As mentioned, taro is tropical to subtropical, but if you don’t live in such a
climate (USDA zones 10-11), you can try growing taro in a greenhouse.
• The large leaves grow from 3-6 feet (91 cm.-1.8 m.) in height, so it will need
some space. Also, patience is required, since taro needs 7 months of warm
weather to mature.
• To get an idea of how many plants to grow, 10-15 plants per person is a good
average.
• The plant is easily propagated via tubers, which can be obtained at some
nurseries or from the grocers, especially if you have access to an Asian market.
• Depending upon the species, the tubers may be smooth and round or rough
and fibered.
• Regardless, just place the tuber in an area of the garden with rich, moist, well-
draining soil with a pH between 5.5 and 6.5. Set the tubers in furrows 6 inches
(15 cm.) deep and cover with 2-3 inches (5-7.6 cm.) of soil, spaced 15-24 inches
(38-61 cm.) apart in rows that are 40 inches (1 m.) apart.
12/03/2022 BY GA 197
 Cont.
• Keep the taro consistently moist; taro is often grown
in wet paddies, like that of rice.
• Feed the taro with a high potassium organic fertilizer,
compost, or compost tea. For a non-stop supply of
taro, a second crop can be planted between the rows
about 12 weeks before the first crop is harvested.

Read more at Gardening Know How: Growing Taro

For Food: How To Grow And Harvest Taro Root 
https://www.gardeningknowhow.com/ornamental/b
ulbs/elephant-ear/growing-taro-root-for-food.htm
12/03/2022 BY GA 198
 Harvesting Taro Roots
• Within the first week, you should notice a small green stem poking up
through the soil.
• Soon, the plant will become a thick bush that may grow a foot to up to 6 feet
(1.8 m.), depending upon the species.
• As the plant grows, it will continue to send out shoots, leaves and tubers
which allow you to continually harvest some of the plant without harming it.
• The whole process takes about 200 days from planting corms to harvest. To
harvest the corms (tubers), lift them gently from the soil with a garden fork
just before the first frost in the fall.
• The leaves may be picked as soon as the first few leaves have opened.
• As long as you don’t cut all the leaves, new ones will grow, giving a
continuous supply of greens.

Read more at Gardening Know How: Growing Taro For Food: How To Grow
And Harvest Taro Root 
https://www.gardeningknowhow.com/ornamental/bulbs/elephant-ear/growi
ng-taro-root-for-food.htm
12/03/2022 BY GA 199
12/03/2022 BY GA 200
12/03/2022 BY GA 201
 Health Benefits
• Taro is rich in nutrients that can provide important health benefits. A one-cup
serving has a third of your daily recommended intake of manganese, which
contributes to good metabolism, bone health, and blood clotting. 
• Its high levels of vitamins can also promote healthy vision, skin, circulation, and
immune system function.
• In addition, taro root offers other health benefits like:
Improved Digestion
• Taro root has more than twice as much fiber as potatoes. Dietary fiber improves
digestive function and can relieve issues like constipation, diarrhea, stomach ulcers,
and acid reflux. 
• Because fiber moves slowly through the digestive system, studies show that it also
keeps you feeling fuller between meals, aiding in healthy weight management.
Blood Sugar Management
• The carbohydrate content in taro root is what’s called a resistant starch.
• These good carbs have been shown in clinical studies to stabilize blood sugar, which
helps with weight management and may reduce the risk of diabetes.These starches
are also suitable for low-carb and keto diets. 
12/03/2022 BY GA 202
12/03/2022 BY GA 203
 Lowers Risks Associated with Cancer

• Taro root and its edible leaves are packed with

antioxidants. Quercetin, which comes from the
vegetable’s purple pigment, is a powerful
antioxidant that protects your body from free
radicals.
•  Free radicals are molecules that build in your
body due to aging and lifestyle and cause cell
damage that scientists believe can lead to
cancer.
12/03/2022 BY GA 204
 Prominent families of vegetable crops:-

1. Crucifereae/cole/cool/brassica/brassicaceae eg.
Broccoli, Brusselssprouts, Cauliflower, Cabbage, chinese
Cabbage, Collards, Kale, Kohlrabi, Turnips, Mustard
2. Legumnaceae/legume eg. Beans, peas
3. Solanaceae/solanaceous eg. Tomatoes, Potatoes,
Eggplant, Peppers
4. Convolvulaceae eg. Sweet potat
5. Cucurbitaceae/cucurbits eg. Cucumbers, melons,
summer and winter squash, pumpkins, and gourds.

12/03/2022 BY GA 205
 Prominent families of vegetable crops

1. Crucifereae/Crucifer/cole/cool/brassica/brassicaceae
• This group of vegetables includes collard, Chinese
cabbage ,cauliflower, cabbage, broccoli, knolkhol, kale and
Brussels‟ Sprout.
• The word “cole” seems to have derived from the abbreviation of the
word “caulis” meaning stem.
• It is a group of highly differentiated plants originated from a single
wild ancestor Brassica oleracea var. oleracea (sylvestris), commonly
known as wild cabbage.
• Cole crops are the most popular vegetables grown during winter
season and among these, cauliflower and cabbage are the important
ones.
• Broccoli is also gaining popularity due to its high medicinal value.

12/03/2022 BY GA 206
 Broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italic L.)
Description
• Broccoli, (Brassica oleracea var. italic L.) is an herbaceous annual
or biennial grown for its edible flower heads which are used as a
vegetable.
• The broccoli plant has a thick green stalk, or stem, which gives
rise to thick, leathery, oblong leaves which are gray-blue to
green in color.
• The plant produces large branching green flower heads covered
with numerous white or yellow flowers.
• Broccoli can be annual or biennial depending on the variety and
can grow to 1 m (3.3 ft) in height.
• Broccoli may also be referred to as sprouting broccoli and likely
originates from the Mediterranean although the exact location
has not been determined.
12/03/2022 BY GA 207
 Broccoli Types

Sprouting broccoli Head broccoli

12/03/2022 BY GA 208
 Cont.

• Uses Broccoli heads are consumed after boiling or fresh in

salads. It can be processed for freezing and drying.
Propagation
• Basic requirements Broccoli is a cool season crop which can
be grown both in spring and in fall. The plants thrive in cool
climates and should be planted for fall in areas with hot
summers.
• Broccoli grows best in moist, fertile soil with a slightly acidic
pH between between 6.0 and 7.0 and at temperatures
between 15.5 and 18°C (60–65°F).
• Broccoli has a high nitrogen requirement and due to the
reduced activity of soil microbes in late fall and winter,
organic matter should be added to the soil throughout the
year to ensure an adequate supply of nutrients when
broccoli is planted.
12/03/2022 BY GA 209
12/03/2022 BY GA 210
 Cauliflower
• Description Cauliflower, Brassica oleracea var. botrytis, is an
herbaceous annual or biennial vegetable plant in the family
Brassicaceae grown for its edible head.
• The head is actually a mass of abortive flowers (flowers which are
unable to produce fruit or seed as they possess only female
reproductive organs; the male organs are either underdeveloped
or totally lacking).
• Cauliflower plants are shallow rooted with a small, thickened
stem. The ribbed leaves branch off the top of the stem and are
light green in color.
• The plant can reach a height of 1–1.5 m (3.3–4.9 ft) and is most
commonly grown as an annual, harvested between 60 and 100
days after planting.
• The origin of cauliflower has not been definitively determined but
its ancestor, wild cabbage, is thought to have originated in ancient
Asia Minor.
12/03/2022 BY GA 211
12/03/2022 BY GA 212
 Blanching
Blanching is a technique used in
vegetable growing. 
Young shoots of a plant are covered to
exclude light to prevent scorching. 

Tie leaves around

Self-blanching developing curd
12/03/2022 BY GA 213
 Cont.

• Uses Cauliflower is grown for consumption as a vegetable,

either fresh or cooked.
May be processed for freezing or pickling.
Propagation
• Basic requirements Cauliflower is a cool season crop and
grows best in well draining, organic soil at a pH of 6.5 or
above. A high amount of organic matter in the soil will help
to hold moisture. The plant requires consistent cool
temperatures to prevent ‘buttoning’ - the formation of
several small heads instead of one large one.
• Cauliflower is less cold hardy than its relatives and it should
be planted after the last frost as sub-freezing temperatures
are likely to damage the plant. It is best grown as a Fall crop
in cooler areas.
12/03/2022 BY GA 214
 Cabbage (red, white, Savoy)
• Description The cabbage plant, Brassica oleracea, is an herbaceous
annual or biennial vegetable in the family Brassicaceae grown for its
edible head.
• There are many different varieties of cabbage which include the white
and red cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata) and the savoy
cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. sabauda.
• The head of the cabbage is round and forms on a short thick stem.
• The leaves are thick and alternating with wavy or lobed edges and the
roots are are fibrous and shallow. The plant produces large yellow
flowers.
• The densely leaved heads can range in size from 0.5 to 3.6 kg (1-8 lb)
depending on variety.
• The plant is usually grown as an annual. Brassica oleracea may be
referred to as cabbage, Shetland cabbage, Savoy cabbage, white
cabbage or red cabbage and is believed to have originated from a wild
cabbage ancestor in ancient Asia minor.
12/03/2022 BY GA 215
 Cabbage types

hard- and Loose-

heading types

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 Twist heads to harvest

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 Cont.

• Uses Cabbage is primarily grown for consumption as a

vegetable, eaten after boiling or steaming. Some cultivars are
grown as fodder for animals. Red cabbage is commonly
pickled.
Propagation
• Basic requirements Cabbage is cool season crop that grows
best in cool, moist conditions. The plant will grow best at
temperatures between 4 and 21°C (40–50°F) allowing it to be
grown in both Spring and Fall. Cabbage will grow optimally in
a rich, moist, well draining soil With a pH of 6.5. The plant
requires at least six hours of direct sunlight every day.
• Sowing seeds Cabbage can be direct seeded or started
indoors to produce transplants. The optimum soil
temperature for germination is between 12 and 24°C (55–
75°F).
12/03/2022 BY GA 218
 Knol Khol or Kohlrabi (Brassica oleraceae
var. gongylodes)
• Kohlrabi, Brassica oleracea var. gongylodes, is an herbaceous
biennial grown for its edible stem. The kohlrabi plant has an
erect stem which is swollen at the bottom, close to the soil.
• The swelling resembles a turnip in appearance, can reach up
to 10 cm (4 in) in diameter and may be green, white or
purple in color depending on the variety.
• The leaves of the plant grow from the stem and have long
petioles and a waxy appearance. Kohlrabi can grow to a
height of 40–50 cm (16–20 in) and although biennial, is
commonly grown as an annual.
• Kohlrabi may also be referred to as turnip-rooted cabbage or
German cabbage and originates from Europe.
12/03/2022 BY GA 219
 Kohlrabi
Brassica oleracea

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 Kohlrabi plant

12/03/2022 BY GA 221
 Cont.

• Uses The kohlrabi stem is consumed after cooking as a

vegetable. The leaves of the plant are also edible and are
eaten after cooking similar to spinach or kale.
Propagation
• Basic requirements Kohlrabi a cool season crop which can be
grown both in Spring and in Fall.
• The plants thrive in cool climates, maturing in cool or lightly
frosty weather.
• In areas with hot summers, they should be planted for a Fall
harvest.
• Kohlrabi will grow best in moist, fertile, well-draining soil with
a slightly acidic pH between 6.0 and 6.8 and at temperatures
between 7 and 24°C (45–75°F).

12/03/2022 BY GA 222
 Brussels sprouts:
• Brussels sprouts: chances are, you love them, or
you hate them.
• If you love them, it's well worth growing your
own organic Brussels sprouts right in your
garden.
• Brussels sprouts, freshly harvested and properly
cooked, are so sweet and delicious you may be
surprised to find you have a new favorite
vegetable!
Where to Grow Brussels Sprouts
• Brussels sprouts grow very well in most climates
but thrive in zones four through seven, where
the mild weather and decent growing season
provide
12/03/2022
perfect conditions. BY GA 223
 60-100 per plant

12/03/2022 BY GA 224
 How to Grow Organic Brussels Sprouts
• Brussels sprouts grow on large plants that require plenty
of space.
• They grow best with plenty of water (at least an inch per
week) and monthly fertilizing with fish emulsion or
compost tea.
• It's a good idea to grow Brussels sprouts under a floating
row cover to prevent cabbage worms from munching on
the plants.
• Mulch well to maintain adequate soil moisture.
• Because Brussels sprouts tend to grow so tall and top-
heavy and have shallow root systems, it's often a good
idea to mound soil up around the base of the stalk as it
grows, firming it gently with your feet.
12/03/2022 BY GA 225
 Chinese cabbage,
• Chinese cabbage which includes pak choy, bok choy,
Michihli, and celery cabbage is a cool-weather vegetable.
• Sow Chinese cabbage directly in the garden as early as 4 to
6 weeks before the last average frost date in spring.
• Chinese cabbage must come to harvest in the cool
temperatures and shorter days of spring or autumn before
temperatures rise above 75°F. Plants require from 50 to 85
days to come to harvest depending upon the variety.
Description. Chinese cabbage is a hardy biennial grown as an
annual. Chinese cabbage has broad, thick, tender leaves
and heavy midribs.
• There are several varieties of Chinese cabbage some are
loose head and some are tight headed; plants grow from 15
to 18 inches tall.
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 Chinese cabbage,

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 Kale

• Kale is a hardy, cool-season green that is part of the cabbage

family.
• It grows best in the spring and fall and can tolerate fall frosts.
Here’s how to grow kale in your garden.
Planting
• You can plant kale at any time, from early spring to early summer.
• If you plant kale late in the summer, you can harvest it from fall
until the ground freezes in winter.
• Mix 1-½ cups of 5-10-10 fertilizer per 25 feet of row into the top
3 to 4 inches of soil.
• Plant the seeds ¼ to ½ inch deep into well-drained, light soil.
• After about 2 weeks, thin the seedlings so that they are spaced 8
to 12 inches apart.
12/03/2022 BY GA 228
 Harvest/Storage

• Kale is ready to harvest when the leaves are about the size of your
hand.
• Pick about one fistful of leaves per harvest. Avoid picking the terminal
bud (found at the top center of the plant) because this will help to keep
the plant productive.
• Kale will continue growing until it’s 20 degrees F. It tastes even sweeter
with a touch of frost.
• If you wish to extend your harvest, shield your kale from the cold with
row covers. Or, create a makeshift cover with tarps and old blankets
propped up by hay bales..
• The small, tender leaves can be eaten uncooked and used in salads.
• Cut and cook the larger leaves like spinach, but be sure to remove the
tough ribs before cooking.
• You can store kale as you would any other leafy green; put the kale in a
plastic bag and store it in the refrigerator. It should last about 1 week.

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 Kale types

‘Scotch’ ‘Siberian’ ‘Bicolor’

Tightly Smooth leaf Ornament
with frilled al &
curled leaves
edge Edible
12/03/2022 BY GA 230
 Turnip
• Description Turnip, Brassica rapa, is an herbaceous annual or
biennial plant in the family Brassicaceae grown for its edible
roots and leaves.
• The plant possesses erect stems and 8–12 leaves forming a
crown. The leaves are light green in color, hairy and thin.
• The plant produces light yellow flowers which are clustered at
the top of a raceme and are often extended above the
terminal buds.
• The leaves can reach 30.5–35.5 cm (12–14 in) in length, while
the branching flower stems can reach 30.5–91.5 cm (12–36 in).
• The taproot of the plant is is a bulbous tuber, almost perfectly
round, which is usually a mixture of purple, white and yellow.
• Turnip is usually grown as an annual and harvested after one
growing season. Turnip may also be referred to as annual
turnip and originates from Europe.
12/03/2022 BY GA 231
 Both root and leaves are edible

12/03/2022 BY GA 232
 cont.

Uses
• Turnips are eaten as a vegetable after cooking.
• The shoots and leaves can be eaten fresh in salads
or the entire plant can be used as a forage for
livestock.
Propagation
• Requirements Turnips are cold hardy vegetables
which can be grown early in the spring for a
summer harvest or in the summer for harvesting
in late fall.
• They prefer a fertile, well draining soil which has a
pH between 6.0 and 7.0.
• The soil should have a loose texture for optimum
root development.
• Turnips will grow best in full sun but will tolerate
partial shade.
• The average daily temperature should fall
between 10–18°C (50–65°F) for adequate growth.
12/03/2022 BY GA 233
 Mustard
Description
• Mustards, (Brassica spp.) are herbaceous annual plants in
the family Brassicaceae grown for their seeds which are used
as a spice.
• Mustard plants are thin herbaceous herbs with yellow
flowers.
• The leaves of the plant are toothed, lobed, and occasionally
have the larger terminal lobes. Plants can reach 16 cm (6.3
in) in length.
• The yellow flowers grow in spike like clusters of 2–12 flowers
and individual flowers are 8 mm (0.3 in) in diameter.
• The seeds are red to brown in color and produced from each
flower.
• Mustard can grow 1.2-2 m (4–6.6 ft) in height and as an
annual plant, survives only one
12/03/2022 BY GA
growing season. 234
 Mustard types

Bok Choy (Pok Choi) or Curly leaf and smooth

Chinese mustard mustards are common to
southern gardens
12/03/2022 cabbage BY GA 235
 Cont.
• Uses The leaves and shoots of the mustard plant are
consumed as a vegetable in some countries. Mustard
seed is incorporated into seasonings and dressings.
Mustard may be grown as a cover crop in rotation
with other vegetables.
Propagation
Basic requirements
• Mustard grows very well in cool climates with short
growing seasons, at temperatures as low as 4.4°C
(40°F).
• Seedlings can tolerate some light frost but severe
frost will kill the plants.
• The mustard plant can be grown in sandy, loamy or
clay soils with a pH between 4.9 and 8.2 and prefers
moist soil.
• The plant will tolerate partial shade.
12/03/2022 BY GA 236
 Collard greens
Description
• Collards, Brassica oleracea var viridis are herbaceous
annual or biennial plants in the family Brassicaceae grown
for their edible leaves which are consumed as a vegetable.
• Collards are erect, branched plants with thick stems and
irregularly lobed dark green leaves with long petioles.
• The plant produces clusters of small yellow flowers on
racemes.
• Collards can reach 1 m (3.3 ft) in height and are usually
grown as annuals, harvested after one growing season.
Collards may also be referred to as collard greens or tree
cabbage and likely originated from a wild ancestor in
ancient Asia minor.
12/03/2022 BY GA 237
 Collard (Brassica oleracea)

• Non-heading
cabbage
• Tolerates heat well
• Harvest young,
tender leaves
• Harvest lower
leaves first, leave
tip to prolong
harvest
12/03/2022 BY GA 238
 cont.
• Uses Collards leaves are usually consumed after
cooking and are eaten as a leafy green vegetable.
Propagation
• Basic requirements Collard greens are a cool season
crop that grow best in cool, moist conditions.
• The plant will grow best at temperatures between 4
and 21°C (40–50°F) allowing it to be grown in both
Spring and Fall.
• Collards are very hardy and will tolerate frost.
• The plants will grow optimally in a rich, moist, well
draining soil with a pH of 6.5.
• Collard greens requires at least six hours of direct
sunlight every day.
12/03/2022 BY GA 239
 2, The Legume Family
Bean
Legumnaceae
• Bean is the common name for the seeds of several
genera of the family Fabaceae, which are used for
human or animal consumption.
• People have been planting beans for centuries for use
as either snap beans, shelling beans or dry beans.
• Read on to learn how to plant beans in your garden.
• Types of Beans Warm season bean plants are
cultivated for their highly nutritious immature pods
(snap beans), immature seeds (shell beans) or mature
seeds (dry beans).

12/03/2022 BY GA 240
 Beans
Phaseolus spp.

Snap beans
French
beans Wax beans
Lima
beans

12/03/2022 BY GA 241
 Green Beans
• All types of Green Beans are incredibly easy to grow.
• You can grow lots of beans in limited space, and there is a
huge variety of beans.
• Often called green beans or string beans, the common
garden bean can be both stringless and colors other than
green.
• But it’s the "green" bean that everyone recognizes as one
of the most frequently prepared vegetables.
• Hot, cold, and even raw, string beans are versatile in the
kitchen and very prolific plants in the garden.
• Green bean plants are either pole varieties that grow long
vines or low-growing bush types. Most varieties are green,
but there are also find purple, red, yellow, and streaked
varieties.
12/03/2022 BY GA 242
 cont.

• Botanical name: Phaseolus vulgaris

• Common name: Green Bean, Snap Bean, String
Bean
• Plant type: Annuals
• Mature size: Size will vary with variety. Bush beans
generally get about 2 ft. tall and 1 ft. wide. Pole
beans can grow upwards or across a trellis for a
good 10 ft. The beans will grow from 3 to 4 inches
long.
• Sun exposure: Full sun
• Soil type: Moderately rich soil
•12/03/2022
Soil pH: Slightly acidic pHBY GAof about 6.0 to 6.2 243
 Peas
Different types of peas
• Don't be fooled into thinking that all peas are the same.
• There are shelling peas, edible-podded peas and even purple-
podded peas.
• Shelling Peas- As the name suggests, shelling peas are grown
for the peas inside the pods.
• Once shelled, the pods are discarded.
• These fall into two main types, early and main crop.
• Early varieties such as Pea 'Misty' and the ever popular Pea '
Kelvedon Wonder' can be harvested just 12 weeks from
sowing.
• Main crops such as Pea 'Oasis' take 15 weeks to crop.
• Shelling peas are often divided into 'wrinkle seeded', which
tend to be sweeter, and 'smooth-seeded' types which are
often hardier varieties.
12/03/2022 BY GA 244
 Peas
Pisum spp.

Sugar snap peas Garden pea

Snow peas
12/03/2022 BY GA 245
 Where to grow peas
• Choose an open, weed-free site in full sun. Grow peas in a
moist, fertile, well drained soil.
• Try to dig plenty of well rotted compost into the soil several
weeks before sowing to improve soil fertility and help retain
moisture.
• It's best to avoid sowing peas on cold, wet soils as they tend
to rot away.
• If space is at a premium then try growing peas in containers
or patio bags.
• Choose a compact, bushy variety like Pea 'Bingo'.
• Peas are a cool season crop, enjoying temperatures of 13 -
18C (55-64F) so they are well suited to the UK climate.
• Peas can be direct sown outdoors from March to June once
the soil has warmed to about 10C (50F).
•12/03/2022
Using cloches will help the earliest
BY GA
crops to germinate. 246
 Garden Pea Varieties
• Smooth vs. wrinkled seeds
– Wrinkled - sweeter
– Smooth – good for fall crop

Tall vs. short plants

12/03/2022 BY GA 247
 Pea plant

12/03/2022 BY GA 248
 Fix Nitrogen for next years crops
• Peas are legumes, which take in nitrogen from the air
and 'fix' (store) it in small nodules along their roots.
• When growing garden peas, don't be tempted to pull
the plants up from the roots at the end of the season.
• The leaves and stems can be cut off at ground level
and added to the compost heap, before digging the
roots into the ground.
• As the roots break down, they release nitrogen into
the soil.
• The nitrogen is then free to be taken up by next year's
crop in a normal rotation system - try growing
brassicas in this spot next year!
12/03/2022 BY GA 249
 The Bulbs:- Onion family Amyraliiceae:
onion, garlic, shallots and leeks
Onion
• Description
• Onion, Allium cepa, is an herbaceous biennial in the family
Liliaceae grown for its edible bulb.
• The stem of the plant is a flattened disc at the base and the
tubular leaves form a pseudo stem where their sheaths overlap.
• The leaves are either erect or oblique and there are 3–8 per plant.
• The onion plant produces pink or white flowers clustered on
stalks.
• The bulbs are formed just above the flattened stem of the plant by
overlapping leaves.
• The bulb is made up of several layers, each corresponding to a leaf.

12/03/2022 BY GA 250
 Allium cepa var. cepa

• Onion Classifications
– Shape: globe, round, flat
– Color: red, white, yellow
– Pungency: sweet or pungent
– Day Length: short,
intermediate, long

12/03/2022 BY GA 251
 Cont.

• Uses The bulb is an edible vegetable and is the most

commonly used part of the onion, usually consumed
after cooking although it can be eaten fresh. The stems
and leaves are also edible.
Propagation
• Requirements Onions are hardy, cool season
vegetables that grow best at temperatures of 12 to 24
°C (55–75 °F), growing particularly well in areas with
cool spring weather and drier, hotter summer weather.
• They require a fertile, well-draining soil such as clay or
silt loams with a pH of 5.5–6.5.
• The plants do not do well in acidic soils.
12/03/2022 BY GA 252
 cont.
• General care Onions should be watered thoroughly after
planting and once every week thereafter, applying
approximately 1 inch of water each time.
• Be careful not to allow the soil to become dry and cracked
as onions have a shallow root system and this indicates a
lack of water. Water adequately but do not overwater.
• Remove any weeds around young plants by hoeing
shallowly so as not to damage the roots of the onions.
Plants should be fertilized a very few weeks with a high
nitrogen fertilizer.
• Harvesting When the soil at the base of the plants begins
to crack, this indicates that the blubbing process has
begun.
12/03/2022 BY GA 253
 Shallots, (Allium cepa, var. aggregatum)
Introduction
• Shallots, Allium cepa, are closely related to multiplier
onions, but smaller, and have unique culinary value.
• (The term 'multiplier' means that the bulbs multiply
freely producing several lateral bulbs).
• At maturity, shallot bulbs resemble small onions.
• Shallots have long been associated with fine French
cuisine.
• They are eaten fresh or cooked, chopped or boiled.
Shallots have a delicate onion flavour when cooked that
adds to but does not overpower other flavours.
• Raw shallots have a strong pungency, stronger than
most onions.
12/03/2022 BY GA 254
 Allium cepa, var. aggregatum
• The shallot looks
rather like a small,
elongated onion with
copper, reddish, or
gray skin.
• Once you peel it, it
divides into cloves like
garlic, rather than one

12/03/2022 BY GA 255
 Allium cepa, var. aggregatum

12/03/2022 BY GA 256
 Propagation and Cultural Management
• Shallots can be grown from seed, but usually small bulbs
are planted in late fall or early spring.
• The "mother" bulbs divide forming several bulbs.
• Although shallots are mostly thought of as dry bulbs, in
some areas the green shoots of shallots are used
similarly to the green onion or as a scallion substitute.
• Plant the bulbs 10–15 cm (4–6") apart. The size of the
bulb affects the date of sprouting, plant size and
maturity.
• For uniformity in production, planting similar size bulbs is
essential.
• For early maturity and harvest, strong, healthy
transplants can be used.
12/03/2022 BY GA 257
 Garlic
• Description
• Garlic, Allium sativum, is herbaceous, annual, bulbous
plant in the family Amaryllidaceae grown for its pungent,
edible bulb of the same name.
• The garlic plant can either have a short, woody central
stem (hard neck) or a softer pseudo stem made up of
overlapping leaf sheaths (sof tneck).
• Hardneck varieties produce a false flower stock which is
termed a 'scape' and produce larger garlic cloves but in
smaller numbers.
• Soft neck garlic is the most popular variety of garlic
grown in the US. The bulb can be up to 7 cm (2.8 in) in
diameter and is made up of 1–15 cloves.
12/03/2022 BY GA 258
 cont.

• The stem is very short and flattened and gives way to a

pseudo stem, The garlic plant can possess 6–12 flat, blade-
like leaves which can stretch up to 50 cm (19.7 in) long.
• The plant can reach 60 cm (23.6 in) in height and is an
annual, surviving only one growing season.
• Garlic is believed to originate from Asia.
• Uses Garlic is primarily used for flavoring food and can be
dried, ground or powdered for this purpose
Propagation
• Basic requirements Garlic is a hardy perennial which can
be grown in a variety of soil types. The plants perform best
when planted in a light, well draining, organic loam with a
pH between 6.0 and 7.0.
12/03/2022 BY GA 259
 General care and maintenance
• When the ground begins to freeze, it is good practice to
cover the garlic plants with a layer of straw mulch.
• This helps to protect the plants over winter, prevents
frost heaving and helps to suppress weeds in the Spring.
• Garlic requires additional irrigation during dry periods
but watering should be ceased a few weeks prior to
harvest to allow the papery skin around the bulb to dry
and to prevent the development of disease.
• Garlic benefits from the addition of fertilizer during the
growing season.
• Nitrogen should be applied in early Spring, later
applications may delay bulb development.

12/03/2022 BY GA 260
 Harvesting
• Garlic is ready to harvest when the plants begin to turn yellow or
brown and begin to fall over.
• Dig the plants while there are still some green leaves remaining
on the plant.
• Harvest the bulbs by digging the plant carefully and lifting the
bulbs using a fork.
• The garlic can be used straight away or it can be cured for longer
storage.
• Garlic can be cured by hanging the plants in bunches or by
spreading them out on a rack or screen.
• The plants should be kept intact while they cure, do not remove
the tops until the garlic is dry.
• Curing should be carried out in a cool, dry place with good
ventilation such as a barn, attic or garage.
• Once dry, the bulbs will keep for up to a year.
12/03/2022 BY GA 261
 Garlic
Allium sativum

 Perennial grown as  Started from cloves

annual
12/03/2022 BY GA 262
 Allium sativum

• Planting
• Point up!
• 1 inch deep
• Sandy, rich soil
• Fall or spring
planting

This clove was planted

upside-down
12/03/2022 BY GA 263
 Allium sativum

Control Weeds &

Remove Flowers

Garlic can be hung to dry

Harvest when tops yellow
and droop
12/03/2022 BY GA 264
 Leek
Description
• Leek, Allium ampeloprasum, also known as Allium porrum,
is a biennial vegetable in the family Liliaceae, grown for its
edible bulb and leaves.
• The plant is a slightly developed bulb attached to a
cylindrical stem formed by the overlapping thick, flat leaves.
• The plant can produce clusters of white, pink or purple
flowers and blue-black seeds in the second year.
• The plant can reach 0.6–0.9 m (2–3 ft) and can be grown as
an annual, harvested after one growing season or as a
biennial with two growing seasons.
• Although modern leek does not grow wild, it was likely
domesticated from wild ancestors in the Mediterranean
region.
12/03/2022 BY GA 265
 Allium ampeloprasum, Porrum group

12/03/2022 BY GA 266
 Allium ampeloprasum, Porrum group

• Plant seedlings in
trenches
• Set 6-8 inches deep
• Cover stem one inch
at a time as plants
grow
• Spring planting – 3-4
wks. Before last frost
• Fall planting – Sept. 1

12/03/2022 BY GA 267
12/03/2022 BY GA 268
 cont.

• Uses Leeks are consumed as a vegetable after

cooking and are incorporated into many dishes.
Propagation
• Basic requirements Leeks grow very well in cool
climates and can be successfully grown in most soils
as long as they are rich and well draining. Leek will
grow optimally in a well-draining loam with a pH
between 5.5 and 7.0. Leek will grow optimally at
temperatures between 18-21˚C (65-70˚F) with 8
hours of bright sunlight.
• In areas with short growing seasons, leeks should be
planted from transplants started indoors.
12/03/2022 BY GA 269
 3, Solanaceae/solanacous eg. Tomatoes,
Potatoes, Eggplant, Peppers
Tomato Description
• Tomato, Lycopersicum esculentum (syn. Solanum
lycopersicum and Lycopersicon lycopersicum) is an
herbaceous annual in the family Solanaceae grown for its
edible fruit.
• The plant can be erect with short stems or vine-like with
long, spreading stems.
• The stems are covered in coarse hairs and the leaves are
arranged spirally.
• The tomato plant produces yellow flowers, which can
develop into a cyme of 3–12, and usually a round fruit
(berry) which is fleshy, smoothed skinned and can be red,
pink, purple, brown, orange or yellow in color.
12/03/2022 BY GA 270
 Lycopersicum esculentum
• Classifications
– Use: fresh, canning
– Maturation: early,
mid-season, and late
varieties

Some types suitable

12/03/2022 BY GA 271
for hanging baskets
 cont.

• Uses Tomato fruit can be eaten raw or cooked and is

used in many dishes.
• The fruit may also be processed into juice, soup,
ketchup, puree, paste or powder.
Propagation
• Requirements Tomatoes grow very well in warm areas
at temperatures between 21 and 24°C (69.8–75.2°F).
• They require a deep, loamy, well-draining soil with a
pH between 5.5 and 6.8. If soil drainage is a problem
then tomatoes can be planted in a raised bed.
• Like all fruiting plants, tomatoes require full sun for
most of the day.
12/03/2022 BY GA 272
 Lycopersicum esculentum

Heritage varieties
12/03/2022
Hybrid tomato BY GA 273
 Determinate vs. Indeterminate
• Determinate
– Finite bearing season
• Harvest will peak then decrease
• Compact plant size

• Indeterminate
– Will bear until frost
• Continues to grow, flower & fruit until frost

12/03/2022 BY GA 274
 Tomato Supports
• Keeps fruits off ground
• May reduce disease
• Saves space

Staked tomato Tomato cage

12/03/2022 BY GA 275
 Stakes, Cages and Trellises
• Staking, caging or trellising tomatoes supports the plants and
helps to keep fruit off of the ground as well as increasing air
circulation around the foliage which helps to prevent disease.
• The type of support system used depends on the type of
tomatoes being grown.
• Determinate tomatoes have short or medium length vines
and stop growing once fruit develops on the terminal
branches.
• Determinates can be staked or caged but do not adapt to
trellises.
• The position of the fruit means that little heavy pruning is
required.
• In contrast, indeterminate tomatoes grow indefinitely and
require a support system to prevent them trailing along the
ground.
12/03/2022 BY GA 276
 Eggplant Description
• Eggplant, Solanum melongena, is a tropical, herbaceous, perennial
plant, closely related to tomato, in the family Solanaceae which is
grown for its edible fruit.
• The plants have a branching stem and simple, long, flat.
• Lobed leave which are green in color and are arranged alternately
on the branches.
• The leaves can measure 10 to 20 cm (4–8 in) long and 5 to 10 cm
(2–4 in) broad.
• The plant produces purple flowers which are 3–5 cm (1.2–2.0 in) in
diameter.
• The fruit is a large, fleshy ovoid berry which can reach 40 cm (15.7
in) in length, with glossy smooth skin and numerous small seeds.
• The color of the fruit is variable and can be white, green, yellow,
purple or black.
12/03/2022 BY GA 277
 Solanum melongena var. esculentum

Star-shaped flowers Attractive fruit

12/03/2022 BY GA 278
12/03/2022 BY GA 279
 cont.

• Uses Eggplant is usually cooked before consumption and is eaten

as a vegetable.
Propagation
• Basic requirements Eggplants are warm-season crops which
require a long growing season.
• They grow best in regions where the daytime temperature is
between 26 and 32°C (80–90°F) and night time temperatures
around 21°C (70°F).
• In addition, eggplant is a sun loving plant and should be
positioned in an area that receives full sunlight.
• Plants will perform best when planted in a fertile soil with a pH
between 6.3 and 6.8.
• Sowing seeds In cold areas and regions with a short growing
season it is necessary to start eggplant indoors or in a glasshouse.
12/03/2022 BY GA 280
 Pepper, bell Description
• Bell peppers, Capsicum annuum are a cultivar group of annual
or perennial plants in the family Solanaceae grown for their
edible fruits. Bell pepper plants are short bushes with woody
stems that grow brightly colored fruits.
• The alternating leaves are elliptical, smooth edged, and come
to a distinct point.
• The plant produces white or purple bell-shaped flowers which
are 2.5 cm (1 in) in diameter. Red, yellow, purple, or brown fruit
are produced each season about 3-6 weeks after flowering.
• Pepper plants can grow 1 m (3.3 ft) tall and are usually grown
as annuals in temperate regions for only one growing season.
• Bell pepper may be referred to as red pepper, yellow pepper or
green pepper and is believed to have originated in Central and
South America.
12/03/2022 BY GA 281
 Capsicum annuum var. annuum

12/03/2022 BY GA 282
 cont.

• Uses Bell peppers can be eaten fresh as a salad

vegetable, or cooked in a variety of dishes.
Propagation
• Basic requirements Bell peppers are warm-season crops
and grow best at temperatures between 18 and 30°C (65–
86°F). They can be grown in many soil types although
sandy soils warm faster in Spring and are good for early
planting.
• The soil should have a pH between 6 and 7. Peppers will
not tolerate water saturated soil and should be planted in a
well draining soil or raised bed. Peppers should be planted
in an area that receives full sun for most of the day.
• Sowing seeds In most cases, pepper seeds should be
started indoors 8–10 weeks before the last Spring frost.
12/03/2022 BY GA 283
 Capsicum annuum var. annuum
• Sandy soil ideal
• Protect plants from
wind and frost
• Sun scald
– Associated with low
magnesium levels

12/03/2022 BY GA 284
 Capsicum annuum var. annuum
Harvest
immature, green
peppers or allow
to color for
sweeter flavor

Cut pods rather

than
12/03/2022 BY GA pulling off plant
285
 Potato Description

• Potato, Solanum tuberosum, is an herbaceous perennial plant in

the family Solanaceae which is grown for its edible tubers.
• The potato plant has a branched stem and alternately arranged
leaves consisting of leaflets which are both of unequal size and
shape.
• The leaflets can be oval to oblong in shape and the leaves can
reach 10–30 cm (4–12 in) in length and 5–15 cm (2–6 in) wide.
• The potato plant produces white or blue flowers and yellow-
green berries. The potato tubers grow underground and generally
located in the top 25 cm (10 in) of the soil. The tubers can range
in color from yellow to red or purple depending on the variety.
• Potato plants can reach in excess of 1 m (3.3 ft) in height and are
grown as annual plants, surviving only one growing season.

12/03/2022 BY GA 286
 Solanum tuberosum

• Potatoes are heavy

feeders
– Take soil sample

• Hill soil when plants

reach 8-12 inches,
and as needed

Hilling or earthing up
12/03/2022 BY GA 287
 cont.
Solanum tuberosum

• Use certified, disease-

free seed pieces
• Select disease-
resistant varieties
• Late maturing varieties
for winter storage

12/03/2022 BY GA 288
 cont.

• Uses Potato tubers are a staple food source in temperate

regions and are eaten after cooking. They may be cut or
sliced and made into potato chips or fries.
• Potatoes can also be processed into starch, alcohol or
flour.
Propagation
• Requirements Potatoes are cool season crops which grow
best in cooler climates or as a winter crop in areas with
warm summers.
• They are sensitive to heat but can tolerate a light frost.
• Potatoes require a deep, fertile, loose, well-draining soil
with a pH between 5.8 and 6.5 and will grow optimally at
daytime temperatures between 18 and 27°C (65–80°F) and
night time temperatures between 12 and 18°C (55–65°F).
12/03/2022 BY GA 289
 cont.
Solanum tuberosum

• Loam and sandy

loam ideal
• Misshapen
tubers may
develop in
heavy soil

12/03/2022 BY GA 290
 cont.
Solanum tuberosum

Seed pieces

12/03/2022 BY GA 291
 4, Convolvulaceae eg. Sweet Potatoes
Sweet potato Description
• Sweet potato,(Ipomoea batatas), is an herbaceous perennial
in the family Convolvulaceae grown for its edible storage
roots.
• The sweet potato plant is a branching, creeeping vine with
spirally arranged lobed, heart shaped leaves and white or
lavender flowers.
• The plant has enlarged roots called tubers which act as an
energy store for the plant.
• The tubers can be variable in shape and can be red, yellow,
brown, white or purple in color.
• Sweet potato vines can reach 4 m (13 ft) in length and the
plant is usually grown as an annual, harvested after one
growing season.
12/03/2022 BY GA 292
 Ipomoea batatas

Need long season to mature: 90-160 days

12/03/2022 BY GA 293
 cont.

• Uses Sweet potato tubers are eaten cooked as a vegetable

or may be processed into flour or starch. The leaves can be
eaten fresh or after cooking.
Propagation
• Requirements Sweet potatoes grow very well in tropical and
subtropical climates and they are very sensitive to cold
weather.
• They grow best at temperatures in excess of 25°C (77°F) in
well-draining, loamy soil with a pH of 5.6–6.6. Sweet
potatoes should be planted in full sun and require plenty of
space as the vines will spread over large areas.
• ”Slips” Sweet potatoes are grown from plants called slips.
Slips are plants which have been grown from a mature sweet
potato tuber. Slips can be purchased or grown at home.
12/03/2022 BY GA 294
12/03/2022 BY GA 295
 Ipomoea batatas

• Grown from
slips
• Start your own
Pointed Start “slips” in or purchase
end up! water or soil
12/03/2022 BY GA 296
 5, The cucurbits/ Cucurbitaceae eg. Cucumbers,
melons, summer and winter squash, pumpkins, and
gourds
• Cucurbita (Latin for gourd) is a genus of herbaceous vines in
the gourd family, Cucurbitaceae, also known as cucurbits,
native to the Andes and Mesoamerica.
• Five species are grown worldwide for their edible fruit,
variously known as squash, pumpkin, or gourd depending
on species, variety, and local parlance, and for their seeds.
• Other kinds of gourd, also called bottle-gourds, are native to
Africa and belong to the genus Lagenaria, which is in the
same family and subfamily as Cucurbita but in a different
tribe.
• These other gourds are used as utensils or vessels, and their
young fruits are eaten much like those of Cucurbita species.
12/03/2022 BY GA 297
 Cucurbits

• Warm soils up with black

plastic mulch or
landscape fabric
– Can double yields!
– Do not tolerate cold soils
• Plant early to beat pests
• Grow disease-resistant
varieties

12/03/2022 BY GA 298
 Cucurbits
• Vines can reach
20 feet
• Cut back to
contain
• Save space –
grow on sturdy
trellis or arbor
– Cucumbers,
small melons,
gourds, and
winter squash

12/03/2022 BY GA 299
 Cucurbits
• Plants are monoecious
– Separate male and
female flowers
– Insect pollinated
• Protect and encourage
honeybees
– Readily cross-pollinate
• No effect on fruit, but
seed is hybrid, not true
Watermelon flower to parent
12/03/2022 BY GA 300
 Description

• C. pepo pumpkins – the two bright orange ones in

center right, and squashes C. maxima, all others
• Cucurbita species fall into two main groups. The first
group are annual or short-lived perennial vines and are
mesophytic, i.e. they require a more or less continuous
water supply.
• The second group are perennials growing in arid zones
and so are xerophytic, tolerating dry conditions.
• Cultivated Cucurbita species were derived from the first
group. Growing 5 to 15 meters (16 to 49 ft) in height or
length, the plant stem produces tendrils to help it climb
adjacent plants and structures or extend along the
ground.
12/03/2022 BY GA 301
 Pumpkin Description

• Pumpkin is the name given to a group of plant species in

the genus Cucurbita, including Cucurbita pepo, Cucurbita
mixta, Cucurbita maxima, and Cucurbita moschata.
• Pumpkin belongs to the family Cucurbitaceae and is
grown primarily as a vegetable or ornamental plant.
• Pumpkin plants are short lived annual or perennial vines
with branching tendrils and broad lobed leaves.
• The plant produces large yellow or orange flowers and a
pepo fruit (berry with a thick rind) known as a pumpkin.
• The fruit can range greatly in size, from miniature
pumpkins weighing a few ounces to giant pumpkins
which can reach over 75 lbs (34 kg).

12/03/2022 BY GA 302
 Cucurbita spp.

www.harrismoran.com

Summer squash tender and

immature
Cut stems and cure in
field 2-3 weeks

Winter squash has

matured and stores well
12/03/2022 BY GA 303
 cont.

• Uses
• Pumpkin flesh can be cooked and eaten in a variety of
dishes. The seeds are also edible and are commonly
roasted and eaten as a snack.
Propagation
• Basic requirements Pumpkin is a warm-season crop,
requiring lots of sun and good drainage to develop
optimally and growing best at temperatures between 18
and 25°C (65–75°F).
• Pumpkin will yield best if grown in a fertile, well-draining
soil, rich in organic matter and with a pH between 6.5
and 7.5.
• Pumpkin should be planted in full sun and provided with
ample soil moisture due to their shallow root system.
12/03/2022 BY GA 304
 Squash Description

• Squash is the collective name given to several

species of plant in the genus Cucurbita, including
C. maxima, C. mixta , C. moschata and C. pepo,
which are widely grown for their edible fruit.
• Squash plants are herbaceous annual plants which
are either trailing vines or bush-like in morphology.
• Vines generally have large, lobed leaves and long
vines which can climb by attaching to surfaces with
their tendrils.
• Bushes generally take up less space than the
sprawling vine types and may have prickly leaves.
12/03/2022 BY GA 305
 Types of Squash

12/03/2022 BY GA 306
 cont.

• Uses Squash fruit can be cooked and eaten as a vegetable.

• Some varieties are grown as ornamentals.
Propagation
• Basic requirements Squash is a warm-season crop, requiring
lots of sun and good drainage to develop optimally and
growing best at temperatures between 18 and 25°C (65–
75°F).
• Squash will yield best if grown in a fertile, well-draining soil,
rich in organic matter and with a pH between 6.5 and 7.5.
• Squash should be planted in full sun and provided with ample
soil moisture due to their shallow root system.
• Vining varieties can grow to very large sizes and require a
good deal of space. Smaller bush varieties are available for
more modest spaces.
12/03/2022 BY GA 307
12/03/2022 BY GA 308
 Cucumber Description
• Cucumber, Cucumis sativus, is a warm season, vining,
annual plant in the family Cucurbitaceae grown for its
edible cucumber fruit.
• The cucumber plant is a sprawling vine with large leaves
and curling tendrils.
• The plant may have 4 or 5 main stems from which the
tendrils branch.
• The leaves of the plant are arranged alternately on the
vines, have 3–7 pointed lobes and are hairy.
• The cucumber plant produces yellow flowers that are 4 cm
(1.6 in) in diameter.
• The cucumber fruit varies in shape but is generally a curved
cylinder rounded at both ends that can reach up to 60 cm
(24 in) in length 10 cm (3.9 BYin)GA in diameter.
12/03/2022 309
 Two Main Types
Cucumis sativus

Slicing cucumber Pickling cucumber

12/03/2022 BY GA 310
 cont.

• Uses Although technically a fruit, cucumbers are

used as a fresh vegetable, consumed fresh in salads.
Some varieties are grown specifically for pickling.
Yellow varieties are generally cooked before
consumption.
• Propagation
• Basic requirements Cucumbers require warm, dry
conditions to develop optimally, preferring both
warm days and warm nights and growing best at a
temperature of 30°C (86°F).
• Cucumbers will yield best if grown in a fertile, well-
draining soil, rich in organic matter and with a pH
between 6.5 and 7.5. BY GA
12/03/2022 311
 Cucumis sativus

• Harvest picklers daily

• Harvest slicers at
appropriate size
• Do not leave
unwanted fruit on
vine
– Will stop production

12/03/2022 BY GA 312
12/03/2022 BY GA 313
 Watermelon Description
• Watermelon, Citrullus lanatus, is a vining annual plant in the
family Cucurbitaceae grown for its fleshy fruit.
• Watermelon vines are thin, grooved and covered in tiny hairs.
• Vines are branching and possess deeply lobed pinnate leaves.
• The plant produces solitary yellow flowers and a large
spherical to oblong fruit.
• The fruit is a 'pepo' - a fleshy fruit protected by a thick
leathery rind.
• The fruit is smooth, light to dark green in color and can be
striped, marbled or solid green.
• The flesh of the fruit is usually red in color but some cultivars
produce green, orange or white flesh and contains numerous
seeds which are usually black or dark brown in color.

12/03/2022 BY GA 314
 Citrullus lanatus
• Ripeness Indicators
– Coloration
– Tendril nearest fruit
turns brown
– Rind touching ground
turns yellow
– Dull, hollow thud when
thinksmart.typepad.com

tapped
– Finger nail test

12/03/2022 BY GA 315
12/03/2022 BY GA 316
 cont.

• Uses Watermelon is usually consumed as a fresh

fruit. In Africa it is sometimes cooked before eating
and may also be used as an animal feed.
Propagation
• Requirements Watermelon is a warm-season crop,
requiring lots of sun and good drainage to develop
optimally and growing best at temperatures between
18 and 28°C (65–82°F). Watermelon will yield best if
grown in a light, well-draining soil, rich in organic
matter and with a pH between 6.0 and 7.0.
• Watermelon should be planted in full sun and heavy
feeders. They need to be provided with even soil
moisture and fertilized regularly.
• Vining varieties can grow to very large sizes and
require a good deal of space.

12/03/2022 BY GA 317
 Cantaloupe/muskmelon Description
• Cantaloupe, Cucumis melo, is a vining plant in
the family Cucurbitaceae, grown for its large,
sweet fruit of the same name.
• Cantaloupe vines are trailing and are slightly
hairy with simple oval leaves arranged
alternately on the stem.
• The plant produces small yellow flowers which
are 1.2–3.0 cm (0.5–1.2 in) in diameter and large
oval to round fruit with green to orange flesh.
• Melon is an annual plant and a vine can grow up
to 3 m (9.8 ft) in length.
• Cantaloupe may be referred to as muskmelon or
melon and likely originate from East and
Northeast Africa.
12/03/2022 BY GA 318
Netted Melon or “Cantalope” (Cucumis melo)

12/03/2022 BY GA 319
 Planting

• Cantaloupe and honeydew are warm-season crops that grow

best at average air temperatures between 65 and 75 °F. It is
best to plant when the soil temperature is at least 60 to 65 °F.
• These melons are very tender and should be planted after the
last chance of frost.
• Uses Melon is primarily consumed as a fresh fruit. The pulp
may be turned into a fresh beverage and the seeds can be
roasted and eaten. The unripe fruit of some species are
cooked as a vegetable.
Propagation
• Basic requirements Cantaloupe is a warm-season crop,
requiring lots of sun and good drainage to develop optimally
and growing best at temperatures between 18 and 28°C (65–
82°F).
12/03/2022 BY GA 320
 Honeydew melon

12/03/2022 BY GA 321
 Honeydew Melon Production Guide

• Honeydew melon is one of the more expensive and in

demand fruit vegetables. It is an annual crop under
the family Cucurbitaceae.
• It belongs to the melon group Cucumis melo var.
inodorus generally called the winter melons, which
include the smooth-skinned green-fleshed Persian, the
yellow-skinned, green-or white-fleshed casaba and the
dark green, wrinkled-skin and pink-fleshed Crenshaw.
• The other group is C. melo var.cantalupensis, the
cantaloupes or muskmelons.
12/03/2022 BY GA 322
 Cont.
• Mature fruits are eaten fresh. It can be canned, dehydrated or made
into juice. Immature fruits may be used in salads, cooked or pickled.
• Seeds are a dietary source of unsaturated vegetable oil and protein,
and may be roasted and eaten like watermelon seeds.
• Honeydew melon is rich in sugars, vitamins and minerals. The edible
portion of the mature fruit is about 45-80%.
• Mature fruits are eaten fresh. It can be canned, dehydrated or made
into juice. Immature fruits may be used in salads, cooked or pickled.
• Seeds are a dietary source of unsaturated vegetable oil and protein,
and may be roasted and eaten like watermelon seeds.
• Honeydew melon is rich in sugars, vitamins and minerals. The edible
portion of the mature fruit is about 45-80%.

12/03/2022 BY GA 323
 Varieties

• Honey World; Honey Sweet; Elizabeth; Crème de Menthe

Climatic And Soil Requirements
• In the Philippines, honeydew melon can be grown from low to mid
elevations. Bulk of production is in the low, flat areas during the dry
season. Melons, however, can be grown throughout the year even
in unprotected conditions.
• Honeydew melon grows best in clay loan to clayey soils with a pH
of 6.0-6.8. During the dry season (Nov.-April), paddy soil with
ample irrigation water is best. During the wet season, sloping areas
for adequate drainage are preferred. Select areas, which have not
been planted to melons or related crops in the last two years.
• Honeydew melon is rich in sugars, vitamins and minerals. The
edible portion of the mature fruit is about 45-80%.

12/03/2022 BY GA 324
 Land Preparation

• Prepare the area at least one month before transplanting. Plow and
harrow twice, pulverize the soil and remove plant debris.
• Non-trellised. Prepare 20-30 cm high and 1-m wide adjacent plots beds
for furrow irrigation. The set of adjacent plots should be 3-4 m apart
depending on variety. This will be the vine-crawling area.
• Mix 1-2 kg well-decomposed animal manure per linear meter of beds.
Apply ½ of N and K requirements and all of P based on soil analysis. In
the absence of soil analysis, use NPK recommendations. Soil granular
insecticides may also be applied.
• Use 1.0-1.2 m-wide plastic mulch with silver and black finish. Roll out
the plastic, silver side up. Secure the sides with soil. It is best to apply
plastic mulch around midday when the temperature is high to structure
the plastic mulch well

12/03/2022 BY GA 325
 Seedling Production
• The growing medium is a mixture of equal parts garden
soil, manure or compost and rice hull charcoal. Soil
sterilization is optional. Drench with Captan, if necessary.
• Use plastic nursery trays with 60-100 holes per tray. Water
first before sowing. Sow one seed per hole pointed end
first. Condition the seeds before sowing by soaking in
water for 30 minutes. Mulch under partial shade or net
until germination.
• Water daily or as needed. Spray foliar fertilizer and
fungicides (Mancozeb) once a week. Spray insecticides if
necessary. Harden the seedlings 3-5 days before
transplanting.
12/03/2022 BY GA 326
 Transplanting

• It is best top transplant during the afternoon.

Make holes spaced 0.4-0.5 m apart on the
plastic mulch with a pointed stick or hot can.
Drench the holes with Captan and transplant
one seedling per hill.
• Water again after transplanting.
• Allow about 10% extra seedlings for
replanting.

12/03/2022 BY GA 327
 Irrigation

• Honeydew melons require
abundant supply of water than most
crops.
• Furrow irrigation to field capacity
should be done every 3-4 days.
• During fruit setting to enlargement,
it is best to keep the soil moist-wet
until two weeks before harvest.
• Erratic water supply results to
deformed fruits and increase
crackling.
12/03/2022 BY GA 328
 Salad Crops and Potherbs (used in soups)
Lettuce (Lactuca sativa)

- Most important salad crop

- Occupy maximum area under salad vegetables.
- Temperate vegetable but also grown in tropical
and subtropical climate of the world
- Tender leaves and heads are consumed as salad
after chopping
- Rich in vit A, Ca and Fe.

12/03/2022 BY GA 329
 Types of Lactuca sativa

Romaine

Leaf lettuce

Boston Head lettuce

lettuce
12/03/2022 BY GA 330
 Four important botanical varieties of cultivated
lettuce:
1. Head type (L. sativa var. capitata): it is of two types:
a) Butter head type:
b) Crisp head type:
2. Leafy or bunching type (L. sativa var. crispa): Non-
heading type cultivar.
3. Cos or romain type (L. sativa var. longifolia): Plants
are straight growing and about 25 cm in height which
produce elongated leaves to form a loaf shaped head.
4. Asparagus or stem type (L. sativa var. asparaginia):
Also known as boston or celery lettuce.
12/03/2022 BY GA 331
 Propagation

• Requirements Lettuce is a cool season crop which will

grow optimally at daytime temperatures of 15–20°C
(59–68°F).
• The plant can be grown in a wide range of soils as
long as it is fertile and moisture retaining due to the
small root system of the plant.
• It is often grown in alkaline soil (pH greater than 7.0)
but will not tolerate acid soil.
• Heat tolerant varieties can be grown over the summer
months and care should be taken to protect the
leaves from strong sun by shading or covering to
prevent the plants from bolting.
12/03/2022 BY GA 332
 Endive Description

• Endive, Cichorium endivia, is an annual or biennial herbaceous plant

in the family Asteraceae grown as a salad green.
• The plant is a short stemmed herb with a rosette of leaves which are
arranged alternately on the stem.
• The leaves become smaller toward the top of the stem.
• The leaves can be broad and flat, curly or frizzy depending in the
variety and are generally 10–25 cm (3.9–9.8 in) in length.
• The endive plant produces an inflorescence consisting of 1–3 blue
flowers.
• Endive plants can grow to 1.5 m (4.9 ft) in height and are typically
grown as an annual with only one growing season.
• Endive may also be referred to as Ceylon spinach, escarole or
chicory and originates from the Mediterranean.
12/03/2022 BY GA 333
 Types of Cichorium intybus

Curly endive Escarole

12/03/2022 BY GA 334
 cont.

• Uses Endive leaves are eaten fresh as a salad green.

Propagation
• Basicl requirements Endive is a cool season plant
and grows best in short days and cool temperatures.
• The optimum temperature for the plants growth is
between 15 and 18°C (59–64.4°F).
• The plants will grow best in a loose, fertile soil or well
draining loam with a pH of 6.5–7.8 and should be
positioned in full sun or partial shade.
• Endive will tolerate light frost and harvesting after
frost will improve the flavor of the leaves.
12/03/2022 BY GA 335
 Spinach Description
• Spinach, Spinacia oleracea, is a leafy herbaceous annual
plant in the family Amaranthaceae grown for its leaves
which are used as a vegetable.
• The spinach plant has simple leaves which stem from the
center of the plant and measure about 2–30 cm (0.8–12.0
in) long and 1 to 15 cm (0.4–6.0 in) across.
• The leaves grow in a rosette and can appear crinkled or
flat. The plant produces small yellow-green flowers which
are 3–4 mm (0.1 in) in diameter.
• The flowers produce small fruit clusters which contain
seeds.
• Spinach is an annual and survives only one growing season
and can reach 30 cm (12 in) in height. Spinach originates
from ancient Persia (now Iran).
12/03/2022 BY GA 336
 Spinacia oleracea

Smooth-leaved spinach Savoy spinach

Quick to mature, requires little space
12/03/2022 BY GA 337
 cont.

• Uses Spinach is eaten cooked as a vegetable and

contains both large amounts iron, calcium, and other
essential vitamins and minerals.
Propagation
• Basic requirements Spinach grows well in cool areas and
can survive the first frost of temperate climates.
• It will germinates and grows optimally at temperatures
between 4 and 16°C (40–60°F) but can withstand
temperatures as low as -7C (20°F). Spinach grows best in
a well draining loamy soil with a pH between 6.4 and 6.8.
• It is sensitive to acidic soil and if the pH is too high,
adding lime is recommended.
12/03/2022 BY GA 338
12/03/2022 BY GA 339
 Swiss Chard Description
• Chard, Beta vulgaris var cicla, is an herbaceous biennial
plant in the family Chenopodiaceae grown for its edible
leaves and leaf stalks.
• The chard plant has an erect growth habit with a basal
rosette of leaves with long fleshy petioles which can be
red or white in color.
• The leaves are large and wrinkled with a pronounced
midrib and prominent veins.
• The chard plant can reach 30–40 cm (12–16 in) in
height and is usually grown as an annual, harvested
after one growing season.
• Chard may also be referred to as Swiss chard or
silverbeet and likely originates from the Mediterranean.
12/03/2022 BY GA 340
Beta vulgaris var. cicla

• Colorful, ornamental
and edible
• Tolerates heat
• Avoid drought stress
– Induces flowering and
stops production

12/03/2022 BY GA 341
 cont.
• Uses All parts of the chard plant are edible. The
leaves and petioles (leaf stalks) are usually consumed
after cooking with the former being eaten in a similar
way to spinach and the latter similar to asparagus.
Propagation
• Basic requirements Chard is best grown in moist,
fertile, and organically rich soils.
• The soil should be light to sandy, and well drained
with a pH between 6.0 and 7.0.
• The plants should be positioned in full sun or light
shade.
12/03/2022 BY GA 342
12/03/2022 BY GA 343
 Parsley (Petroselinum crispum)
• Family: Apiaceae Origin: Mediterranean - possibly Sardinia
 It is a bright green biennial herb, often used as spice or garnish.
 It grows to about 30cm and produces long stalks of tiny greenish
yellow flowers
which should be cut off when they appear.
 Parsley is used for its leaf in much the same way as coriander
(which is also known as Chinese parsley or cilantro), although
parsley has a milder flavor.
 Finely chopped leaves are used for flavouring sauces, soups,
stuffing and minces etc
and also sprinkled over vegetable and salads.
 A good source of Vitamin A and C, Ca and protein. Besides, K, Fe,
Na and P also
available.
12/03/2022 BY GA 344
 Petroselinum crispum

12/03/2022 BY GA 345
 General tips for cultivation:
 Parsley prefers an open, sunny and well-drained position.
 It requires an ordinary, good and well worked soil but a moist and partially
shaded
position is the best.
 Parsley grows best between 22 to 30oC, optimum being 21oC.
 Low temperature causes severe damage.
 Common varieties are Curled Leaf, Double Curled and Mass curled Champion.
 Sowing of nursery: Low hills: October, Mid hills:August-September, High
hills:March- April.
 Seed rate 250 g/ha.
 Seed germination is difficult and inconsistent and may require 3-6 weeks.
 Furanocoumarins in seed coat may be responsible. Soaking seeds overnight
before
sowing shortens the germination period.
 FYM 150q/ha, 60:40:30 kg NPK/ha. Apply full P, K and half N at planting and resy
N in 2 equal splits at one month interval each.
 Spacing 45 cm X 10 cm
 Parsley leaves are ready for use about 3 months after seeding.
 Average yield is 100-125 q/ha
12/03/2022 BY GA 346
 Celery (Apium graveolens)
 A salad crop grown for long fleshy leaf
stalks.
 Ranks second in importance among salad
crops.
 Leaf stalk and petioles are eaten raw or
used for preparation of sauces, vegetable
juices, stews, soups etc.
 Eaten primarily for its unique texture and
crispness.
 Seeds are used as condiment in European
countries and spice in India
 Good for rheumatism.

12/03/2022 BY GA 347
 (Apium graveolens)

12/03/2022 BY GA 348
 Cultivars: Three types are found:
1. Celery (Apium graveolens var. dulce): only central
parts of plant are used.
2. Leaf celery or French or Chinese celery ( var.
secalinum): grown for its pretty fragrant
leaves.
3. Celeriac (var rapacerum): cultivar of celery.
Common varieties: Utah, Pascal, Golden
Deteroit, Golden Self Blanch
Soil and climate:
 Peat and high sandy loam soils are better for growing.
 High temperature during early stages results in higher
yield.
12/03/2022 BY GA 349
 CHAPTER -7 -
ROOT AND TUBER CROPS

• Root and tuber crops consist of root crops,

such as beets and carrots, and tuber crops,
such as potatoes and sweet potatoes, and the
leaves of root crops, such as beet tops.

12/03/2022 BY GA 350
 Tuber vegetables
• Tubers are enlarged structures in some plant species
used as storage organs for nutrients.
• They are used for the plant's perennation (survival of
the winter or dry months), to provide energy and
nutrients for re growth during the next growing
season, and as a means of asexual reproduction.
• Stem tubers form thickened rhizomes (underground
stems) or stolons (horizontal connections between
organisms).
• Common plant species with stem tubers include
potato and yam.
• Some sources also treat modified lateral roots (root
tubers) under the definition; these are encountered in
sweet potato and cassava.
12/03/2022 BY GA 351
 Stem tubers
• A stem tuber forms from thickened rhizomes or
stolons.
• The top sides of the tuber produce shoots that
grow into typical stems and leaves and the under
sides produce roots.
• They tend to form at the sides of the parent plant
and are most often located near the soil surface.
• The underground stem tuber is normally a short-
lived storage and regenerative organ developing
from a shoot that branches off a mature plant.
• The offspring or new tubers are attached to a
parent tuber or form at the end of a
hypogeogenous (initiated
12/03/2022 BY GA below ground) rhizome.352
 Root tubers
• A tuberous root or storage root, is a modified lateral root,
enlarged to function as a storage organ.
• The enlarged area of the root-tuber, or storage root, can be
produced at the end or middle of a root or involve the entire root.
• It is thus different in origin but similar in function and appearance
to a stem tuber.
• Examples of plants with notable tuberous roots include the
sweet potato and cassava.
• Root tubers are perennating organs, thickened roots that store
nutrients over periods when the plant cannot actively grow, thus
permitting survival from one year to the next.
• The massive enlargement of secondary roots typically represented
by sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), have the internal and external
cell and tissue structures of a normal root, they produce
adventitious roots and stems which again produce adventitious
roots.
12/03/2022 BY GA 353
 Yam
• Yam is the common name for some plant
species in the genus Dioscorea (family 
Dioscoreaceae) that form edible tubers.
• Yams are perennial herbaceous vines
 cultivated for the consumption of their 
starchy tubers in many temperate and tropical
 regions, especially in Africa, South America
and the Caribbean, Asia, and Oceania.
• The tubers themselves, also called "yams",
come in a variety of forms owing to
numerous cultivars and related species.
• Yams were independently domesticated on
three different continents:
• Africa (Dioscorea rotundata)
• Asia (Dioscorea alata)
• America (Dioscorea trifida)

12/03/2022 BY GA 354
 Yam

• The name "yam" appears to derive from

Portuguese inhame or Canarian
 (Spain) ñame, which derived from 
West African languages during trade.
•  Although in both languages, this name
is commonly referred to the plant taro
 (Colocasia esculenta) from the genus 
Colocasia, as opposed to Dioscorea.
• The main derivations borrow from
verbs meaning "to eat".
• True yams have various common names
 across multiple world regions.

12/03/2022 BY GA 355
 Other uses of the term "yam"
• In some places, other (unrelated) root vegetables are
sometimes referred to as "yams", including:
• In the United States, sweet potatoes (Ipomoea
 batatas), especially those with orange flesh, are often
referred to as "yams"
• In Australia, the tubers of the Microseris lanceolata, or
yam daisy, were a staple food of Aboriginal Australians
 in some regions.
• In New Zealand, oca (Oxalis tuberosa) is typically
referred to as "yam".
• In Malaysia, Singapore and 
Portuguese speaking countries, taro (Colocasia
esculenta) is referred to as "yam".
• In Africa, South and Southeast Asia as well as the
tropical Pacific islands Amorphophallus paeoniifolius is
grown and known as "elephant foot yam"

12/03/2022 BY GA 356
 Description

• A monocot related to lilies and grasses, yams are vigorous herbaceous vines

 providing an edible tuber. 
• They are native to Africa, Asia, and the Americas.
• Some yams are also invasive plants, often considered a "noxious weed", outside
cultivated areas. 
• Some 870 species of yams are known, and 95% of these crops are grown in
Africa.
• Yam plants can grow up to 15 m (49 ft) in length and 7.6 to 15.2 cm (3 to 6 in)
high. The tuber may grow into the soil up to 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) deep. The plant
disperses by seed.
• The edible tuber has a rough skin that is difficult to peel but readily softened by
heating. The skins vary in color from dark brown to light pink.
• The majority of the vegetable is composed of a much softer substance known as
the "meat". This substance ranges in color from white or yellow to purple or pink
in mature yams.
12/03/2022 BY GA 357
 Harvesting
• Yams in West Africa are typically harvested by hand using sticks, spades, or
diggers.
•  Wood-based tools are preferred to metallic tools as they are less likely to
damage the fragile tubers; however, wood tools need frequent
replacement.
• Yam harvesting is labor-intensive and physically demanding.
• Tuber harvesting involves standing, bending, squatting, and sometimes
sitting on the ground depending on the size of mound, size of tuber, or
depth of tuber penetration.
• Care must be taken to avoid damage to the tuber, because damaged tubers
do not store well and spoil rapidly.
• Some farmers use staking and mixed cropping, a practice that complicates
harvesting in some cases.
• In forested areas, tubers grow in areas where other tree roots are present.
Harvesting the tuber then involves the additional step of freeing them from
other roots. This often causes tuber damage.
• Aerial tubers or bulbils are harvested by manual plucking from the vine.
12/03/2022 BY GA 358
 Growing root vegetables
• Growing root vegetables, such as carrots, beets, and turnips, poses
a very unique problem.
• Root vegetables grow out of sight, so we often do not know if
there is a problem until we harvest them.
• Experience is a great teacher, but here are some tips to get you
started on the right track toward growing a successful harvest of all
sorts of root vegetables.
• A general tip for all kinds of root crops is that the soil needs to be
loose enough for them to send down roots.
• If the soil is compacted or rocky, the roots will become distorted
and forked.
• If you have extremely poor soil, you will be better off growing root
crops in a raised bed.
• You could devote one section of your vegetable garden to this
raised bed and rotate your root crops in it throughout the season.
12/03/2022 BY GA 359
 Carrot Description
• Carrot, Daucus carota, is an edible, biennial herb in the
family Apiaceae grown for its edible root.
• The carrot plant produces a rosette of 8–12 leaves above
ground and a fleshy conical taproot below ground.
• The plant produces small (2 mm) flowers which are
white, red or purple in color.
• The root can grow to between 5 and 50 cm (2.0–20 in)
long and reach 5 cm (2.0 in) in diameter.
• The foliage of the plant can reach a height of 150 cm
(59.1 in) when in flower.
• The carrot plant can be annual or biennial and may also
be referred to as wild carrot.
• The plant is believed to have originated in Europe or the
12/03/2022 BY GA 360
Western Mediterranean.
 Daucus carota var. sativus
• Harvest when 1 to
1 ½ inch diameter
• Fall crop – harvest
after first frost
• Easy to grow
• Deep, loose, rich
soil
• Rocky, hard soil
causes irregular
growth.
12/03/2022 BY GA 361
 There are four main types of
carrot:
1. Imperator are long and have a tapered tip.
They are grown for fresh consumption.
2. Nantes carrots are medium length with a blunt
tip, used for bunching, slicing and mini-carrots.
3. Danvers carrots large and used primarily for
processing.
4. Chantenay carrots are short and have a
distinctively colored core. This group includes
many older cultivars primarily grown by home
gardeners.
12/03/2022 BY GA 362
 Daucus carota

• Carrot Shapes (left to

right)
– Nantes
• Medium length, blunt
tip
• Bunching, slicing, minis
– Chantenay
• Short, distinctively
colored core
– Danvers
• Large, good for
processing
– Imperator
• Long, tapered, eaten
fresh
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12/03/2022 BY GA 364
 cont.

• Uses Carrot roots are eaten as a vegetable and can be

consumed fresh or cooked.
• Carrot juice is consumed as a beverage. The leaves of the
plant can be used as feed for animals.
Propagation
• Basic requirements Carrots are cool-season crops which can
be planted in early Spring and left in the ground all summer
for harvest in the fall.
• Carrots grow best in a well-draining, loose, sandy soil which
is free of large rocks and has a pH between 5.5 and 7.0.
• They require full sun for optimum development but will
tolerate some very light shade.
• The optimum temperature for their growth is between 16
and 24°C (61–74°F).
12/03/2022 BY GA 365
12/03/2022 BY GA 366
 Parsnip Description
• Parsnip, Pastinaca sativa, is an herbaceous biennial plant in the
family Apiaceae grown for its edible taproot resembling a pale carrot.
• The parsnip plant has an erect, branched stem with a rosette of
leaves which are oblong or triangular in shape and 30–38 cm (12–15
in) in length.
• The leaves at the top of the plant are smaller and attached directly to
the stem.
• The plant produces flowers on umbels which are yellow or orange in
color with wide petals.
• The taproot of the plant is thick and fleshy and can grow between 10
and 23 cm (4–9 in) in length.
• The parsnip plant may grow to a height of 90–180 cm (35–70 in) in
height and is usually grown as an annual for only one growing season.
• Parsnip may also be referred to as wild parsnip and originates from
the Mediterranean.

12/03/2022 BY GA 367
 Pastinaca sativa

• Sweet, nutty flavor

• Good for stews and
soups
• Biennial plant grown
as annual
• Grow like carrots
12/03/2022 BY GA 368
12/03/2022 BY GA 369
 cont.
Uses The parsnip root is primarily eaten as a root vegetable
after cooking.
• May be sliced and turned into crisps.
• The leaves of the plant are also edible and may be cooked
and eaten as a vegetable.
Propagation
• Basic requirements Parsnips are cool-season crops which can
be planted in early Spring and left in the ground all summer
for harvest in the Fall or in the spring of the following year.
• Parsnips grow best in a well-draining, loose, sandy soil which
is free of large rocks and has a pH between 5.8 and 7.5.
• Parsnips require full sun for optimum development but will
tolerate some very light shade.

12/03/2022 BY GA 370
 Radish Description
• Radish, Raphanus sativus, is an herbaceous annual or biennial
plant in the family Brassicaceae, grown for its edible taproot.
• The radish plant has a short hairy stem and a rosette (ground
level horizontal and circular leaves) of oblong shaped leaves
which measure 5–30 cm (2–12 in) in length.
• The top leaves of the plant are smaller and lance-like. The
taproot of the plant is cylindrical or tapering and commonly red
or white in color.
• The radish plant produces multiple purple or pink flowers on
racemes which produce 2–12 seeds.
• The reddish brown seeds are oval, and slightly flattened.
• Radish is generally grown as an annual plant, surviving only one
growing season and can reach 20–100 cm (8–39 in) in height
depending on the variety.
12/03/2022 BY GA 371
 Raphanus sativus
• Very easy to grow
• Grow all season:
– Spring, mid-season,
summer, late, and
winter varieties
available
• Oblong, round, flat or
long roots

12/03/2022 BY GA 372
 cont.

• Uses The radish root can be eaten fresh in salads

or cooked with other ingredients such as meat.
The leaves of the plant are also edible and can be
used as a salad green.
Propagation
• Basic requirements Radishes are fast growing
cool-season vegetables that grow very well in cool
moist climates.
• The optimum temperature for the growth of
radishes is between 10 and 18°C (50–65°F) and
they grow best in a well-draining sandy loams
which are rich in organic matter with a pH
between 5.8 and 6.8.
• Radish should be grown in full sun to part shade.
12/03/2022 BY GA 373
 Radishes
Raphanus sativus
• Low maintenance
• Irrigation important
– 1 inch / week
• Sow at intervals for
continued harvest

12/03/2022 BY GA 374
 Rutabaga Description

• Rutabaga, Brassica napus, is an herbaceous biennial in the family

Brassicaceae grown primarily for its edible root.
• The plant is believed to be a hybrid of turnip and wild cabbage.
• The leaves grow from a stout swollen stem (neck) close to the
ground forming the crown the plant.
• Rutabaga leaves are thick smooth and waxy.
• They are lobed and have a bluish hue.
• The plant produces light yellow flowers which are clustered at the
top of a raceme.
• Unlike turnip, the flowers do not extend above the terminal buds.
• The taproot of the plant is a bulbous tuber, almost perfectly
round, which can be purple, white or yellow with yellow flesh.

12/03/2022 BY GA 375
Brassica napus

• Roots similar to
turnip
– Longer to mature
– Stores longer
• Tops also edible
– Strong flavor
– Good for
soups/stews

12/03/2022 BY GA 376
12/03/2022 BY GA 377
 cont.
• Uses Rutabaga roots are usually consumed as a vegetable after
cooking. The leaves are also edible and can be eaten fresh in salads
or after cooking.
Propagation
• Basic requirements Rutabagas are cold hardy vegetables which can
be grown early in the spring for a summer harvest or in the
summer for harvesting in late fall.
• They prefer a fertile, well draining soil which has a pH between 6.0
and 7.0.
• The soil should have a loose texture for optimum root
development.
• Rutabagas will grow best in full sun but will tolerate partial shade.
• The average daily temperature should fall between 10–18°C (50–
65°F) for adequate growth.
12/03/2022 BY GA 378
 Beet root Description
• Beets, Beta vulgaris, are herbacious biennial root vegetables
in the family Chenopodiaceae grown for their edible root.
• The plant is usually erect with a long main root and a
rosette of leaves growing on stems.
• The leaves are oval in shape, arranged alternately on the
stem and grow 20–40 cm (7.9–15.7 in) in length.
• The roots are usually red in color. The plant produces sessile
green flowers and can reach 1–2 m (3.3–6.6 ft) in height.
• Beets are usually grown as annual plants, harvested after
one growing season.
• Beets may also be referred to as beetroot, garden beet or
spinach beet and originated from the Mediterranean.

12/03/2022 BY GA 379
 Beet root
Beta vulgaris
• Irrigation important
during establishment
• Not tolerant of wet
soil
• Bolting may occur in
heat

12/03/2022 BY GA 380
12/03/2022 BY GA 381
 cont.

• Uses The roots are consumed after boiling and may be

pickled in vinegar.
• The leaves of the spinach beet plant are consumed as a herb
in Indonesia and Japan. Chemicals in the roots can be
extracted and used as food coloring.
Propagation
• Basic requirements Beets are cool season vegetables with a
long growing season. They grow best in cool climates but can
tolerate some heat as well as some freezing.
• The optimum temperature for their growth is between 15.5
and 18.3°C (60–65°F).
• Beets grow best in a loose, well draining soil with a pH
between 6.2 and 6.8 and should be planted in full sun for
optimum development.
12/03/2022 BY GA 382
 Other vegetable crops
Okra Description
• Okra, Abelmoschus esculentus, is an herbaceous annual plant
in the family Malvaceae which is grown for its edible seed
pods.
• Okra plants have small erect stems that can be bristly or
hairless with heart-shaped leaves.
• The leaves are 10–20 cm (4–8 in) long with 5–7 lobes.
• The plant produces flowers with five white to yellow petals
which are 4–8 cm (1.6–3.1 in) in diameter.
• The seed pod is a capsule up to 25 cm (10 in) long, containing
numerous seeds. Okra can grow 1.2–1.8 m (4–6 ft) tall and as
an annual plant, survives only one growing season. Okra may
also be referred to as lady's fingers and is believed to have
originated in Ethiopia.
12/03/2022 BY GA 383
 Abelmoschus esculentus

12/03/2022 BY GA 384
12/03/2022 BY GA 385
 Propagation
• Basic requirements Okra is a heat loving plant, growing best in
southern climates in a well draining, light sandy to medium
loams.
• Soils should be high in organic matter with a pH between 5.8 to
6.8.
• If planting in clay soil, transplants are recommended due to the
difficulty encountered in seedling emerging from the heavy soil.
• The plant should be grown in an area of high sunlight and
grows best in hot temperatures.
• Soil temperatures should be at least 18.3°C (65°F) with optimal
growth of the plants occurring at soil temperatures between
23.9–32.3°C (75–90°F).
• Propagation Okra is typically propagated from seed. Soaking
seeds in water overnight prior to planting helps the plants to
germinate.
12/03/2022 BY GA 386
 CHAPTER - 8 -
VEGETABLE CROP INSECT PESTS AND
DISEASES
Asparagus Common
Pests and Diseases
• Diseases
• Category : Fungal
• Asparagus rust
Puccinia asparagi
• Rust (Puccinia
asparagi) symptoms
12/03/2022 BY GA 387
 Pests
• Category : Insects
• Asparagus beetle (spotted asparagus beetle)
Crioceris asparagi
Crioceris duodecimpunctata
• Asparagus beetle (Crioceris asparagi)

12/03/2022 BY GA 388
 Brassica Diseases and Pests
• Broccoli Common Pests and Diseases
• Diseases
• Category : Fungal
• Alternaria leaf spot Alternaria brassicae
• All above ground parts of host plants (broccoli in this
picture) are susceptible to Alternaria leaf spot.
Symptoms
• Small dark spots on leaves which turn brown to gray;
• lesions may be round or angular and may possess a
purple-black margin;
• lesions may form concentric rings, become brittle and
crack in center;
• dark brown elongated lesions may develop on stems and
petioles
12/03/2022 BY GA 389
 Alternaria leaf spot Alternaria brassicae
• Cause Fungus
• Comments
• Disease emergence favored
by warm, rainy weather
• Management
• Plant only pathogen-free
seed;
• rotate crops;
• applications of appropriate
fungicides control disease
when present.
12/03/2022 BY GA 390
 Pests Category : Insects
• Diamond back moth larva feeding on broccoli leaf
Symptoms
• Young larvae feed between upper and lower leaf
surface and may be visible when they emerge from
small holes on the underside of the leaf;
• older larvae leave large, irregularly shaped shot holes
on leaf undersides, may leave the upper surface intact;
• larvae may drop from the plant on silk threads if the
leaf is disturbed;
• larvae are small (1 cm/0.3 in) and tapered at both
ends;
• larvae have to prolegs at the rear end that are
arranged in a distinctive V-shape
12/03/2022 BY GA 391
 Management
• Larvae can be controlled organically by
applications of Bacillus thurengiensis or Entrust;
• application of appropriate chemical insecticide is
only necessary if larvae are damaging the
growing tips of the plants.

12/03/2022 BY GA 392
 Turnips Common Pests and Diseases
Diseases
Category : Fungal
• Alternaria leaf spot (Black spot, Gray spot)
Alternaria spp.
• Alternaria lesions on turnip leaf
Symptoms
• Small dark spots on leaves which turn brown
to gray;
• lesions may be round or angular and may
possess a purple-black margin;
• lesions may form concentric rings, become
brittle and crack in center;
• dark brown elongated lesions may develop
on stems and petioles.

12/03/2022 BY GA 393
 Cont.

• Cause Fungus
Comments
• May become a problem during
cool, wet periods
Management
• Plant only pathogen-free seed;
• rotate crops;
• applications of appropriate
fungicides control disease when
present
12/03/2022 BY GA 394
 Pests Category : Insects
• Cabbage aphid Brevicoryne
brassicaea
• Cabbage aphid colony
Symptoms Biocontrol - Lady beetles are
• Large populations can cause stunted voracious aphid feeders and an
growth or even plant death; adult beetle will eat 50 or
more aphids a day. 
• insects may be visible on the plant
leaves and are small, grey-green in
color and soft bodied and are
covered with a white waxy coating;
• prefer to feed deep down in
cabbage head and may be obscured
by the leaves.
12/03/2022 BY GA 395
 cont.

• Cause Insect
• Comments
• Cabbage aphids feed only on cruciferous plants but
may survive on related weed species
Management
• If aphid population is limited to just a few leaves or
shoots then the infestation can be pruned out to
provide control;
• check transplants for aphids before planting;
• use tolerant varieties if available;
• reflective mulches such as silver colored plastic can
deter aphids from feeding on plants;
• Biocontrol i.e. by lady bug, parasitic wasp, green
lacewings,
12/03/2022
and birds. BY GA 396
Aphidius colemani is a small parasitic wasp that lays its eggs in aphids.
The eggs hatch inside and the larvae spin cocoons which swell
the aphid's body. The adult wasp then exits the aphid body, leaving behind a
hard brown shell called an aphid mummy.
12/03/2022 BY GA 397
 cont.
• sturdy plants can be sprayed with a strong jet of
water to knock aphids from leaves;
• insecticides are generally only required to treat
aphids if the infestation is very high - plants
generally tolerate low and medium level
infestation;
• insecticidal dish liquid soaps or oils such as
neem or canola oil are usually the best method
of organic home made easy method of control;
• always check the labels of the products for
specific usage guidelines prior to use.
12/03/2022 BY GA 398
 Organic home made insecticides
• A few tablespoons of liquid dish or insecticidal soap
diluted in a pint of water is the simplest way to make
a natural aphid killer spray for that aphid infestation.
• After mixing the water and soap mixture, fill up a
squirt bottle.

12/03/2022 BY GA 399
12/03/2022 BY GA 400
 Collards Common Pests and Diseases
• Diseases Category : Fungal
• Alternaria leaf spot Alternaria spp.
• Symptoms
• Brown to tan concentric rings with yellow edges
on leaves;
• centers of lesions developing gray to brown soft
fungal mold; brown to black lesions with a black
border on roots.
• Cause Fungus
• Comments
• Disease emergence favors warm, wet conditions.
• Management
• Plant only pathogen-free seed;
• rotate crops;
• applications of appropriate fungicides control
disease when present.
12/03/2022 BY GA 401
 Homemade organic spray for fungus
• Mixing baking soda with water, about 4 teaspoons or 1 heaping
tablespoon (20 mL) to 1 gallon (4 L.) of water (Note: many
resources recommend using potassium bicarbonate as a
substitute for baking soda.).
• Dishwashing soap, without degreaser or bleach, is a popular
ingredient for homemade plant fungicide.

12/03/2022 BY GA 402
12/03/2022 BY GA 403
12/03/2022 BY GA 404
 Pests Category : Insects
• Beet armyworm Spodoptera exigua
• Beet armyworm eggs covered in white hairs
• Symptoms
• Singular, or closely grouped circular to irregularly shaped
holes in foliage;
• heavy feeding by young larvae leads to skeletonized leaves;
• shallow, dry wounds on fruit;
• egg clusters of 50-150 eggs may be present on the leaves;
• egg clusters are covered in a whitish scale which gives the
cluster a cottony or fuzzy appearance;
• young larvae are pale green to yellow in color while older
larvae are generally darker green with a dark and light line
running along the side of their body and a pink or yellow
underside.
12/03/2022 BY GA 405
 cont.

• Cause Insect
• Comments
• Insect can go through 3–5 generations a
year
• Management
• Organic methods of controlling the beet
armyworm include biological control by
natural enemies which parasitize the larvae
and the application of Bacillus thuringiensis;
• there are chemicals available for
commercial control but many that are
available for the home garden do not
provide adequate control of the larvae.

12/03/2022 BY GA 406
 Cauliflower Common Pests and Diseases

• Diseases Category : Bacterial

• Bacterial soft rot Erwinia caratovora
• Bacterial soft rot of cauliflower
• Symptoms
• Water-soaked lesions on leaves and flower heads
which expand to form a large rotted mass;
• surface of lesions usually crack and exude slimy
liquid which turns tan, dark brown or black on
exposure to air
• Cause Bacterium
12/03/2022 BY GA 407
 cont.
Management
• Chemical treatments are not available for
bacterial soft rot, control relies on cultural
practices;
• rotate crops; plant in well-draining soils or
raised beds; only harvest heads when they
are dry;
• avoid damaging heads during harvest

12/03/2022 BY GA 408
 Pests Category : Insects
• Beet armyworm Spodoptera exigua
• Beet armyworm larva
Symptoms
• Singular, or closely grouped circular to irregularly shaped
holes in foliage;
• heavy feeding by young larvae leads to skeletonized leaves;
• shallow, dry wounds on fruit;
• egg clusters of 50-150 eggs may be present on the leaves;
• egg clusters are covered in a whitish scale which gives the
cluster a cottony or fuzzy appearance;
• young larvae are pale green to yellow in color while older
larvae are generally darker green with a dark and light line
running along the side of their body and a pink or yellow
underside
12/03/2022 BY GA 409
 cont.

• Cause Insect
Comments
• Insect can go through 3–5 generations a
year
Management
• Organic methods of controlling the beet
armyworm include biological control by
natural enemies which parasitize the larvae
and the application of Bacillus thuringiensis;
• there are chemicals available for
commercial control but many that are
available for the home garden do not
provide adequate control of the larvae.

12/03/2022 BY GA 410
 Mustard Common Pests and Diseases
• Diseases Category : Fungal
• Alternaria leaf spot (Black spot, Gray spot) Alternaria
brassicae
Symptoms
• Small dark spots on leaves which turn brown to gray;
• lesions may be round or angular and may possess a purple-
black margin;
• lesions may form concentric rings, become brittle and crack
in center;
• dark brown elongated lesions may develop on stems and
petioles.
• Cause Fungi

12/03/2022 BY GA 411
 cont.

• Comments
• May become a problem on
cabbage during cool, wet periods
Management
• Plant only pathogen-free seed;
• rotate crops;
• applications of appropriate
fungicides control disease when
present

12/03/2022 BY GA 412
 Cont.
Pests Category : Insects
• Flea beetles Phyllotreta spp.
Symptoms
• Small holes or pits in leaves that give the foliage a characteristic
“shothole” appearance; young plants and seedlings are
particularly susceptible; plant growth may be reduced; if damage
is severe the plant may be killed; the pest responsible for the
damage is a small (1.5–3.0 mm) dark colored beetle which jumps
when disturbed; the beetles are often shiny in appearance
• Cause Insect
Comments
• Younger plants are more susceptible to flea beetle damage than
older ones;
• older plants can tolerate infestation;
• flea beetles may overwinter on nearby weed species, in plant
debris or in the soil; insects may go through a second or third
generation in one year
12/03/2022 BY GA 413
 Cont.

Management
• In areas where flea beetles are a problem, floating row covers may
have to be used prior to the emergence of the beetles to provide a
physical barrier to protect young plants;
• plant seeds early to allow establishment before the beetles
become a problem - mature plants are less susceptible to damage;
• trap crops may provide a measure of control - cruciferous plants
are best; application of a thick layer of mulch may help prevent
beetles reaching surface;
• application on diamotecoeus earth or oils such as neem oil are
effective control methods for organic growers;
• application of insecticides containing carbaryl, spinosad, bifenthrin
and permethrin can provide adequate control of beetles for up to
a week but will need reapplied

12/03/2022 BY GA 414
 Bean Common Pests and Diseases

• Diseases Category : Fungal

• Alternaria leaf spot Alternaria alternata
• Symptoms of Alternaria leaf spot on bean leaves and pods
• Symptoms
• Small irregular brown lesions on leaves which expand and turn gray-brown
or dark brown with concentric zones; older areas of lesions may dry out
and drop from leaves causing shot hole; lesions coalesce to form large
necrotic patches.
• Cause Fungus
• Comments Disease emergence favored by high humidity and warm
temperatures; plants grown in nitrogen and potassium deficient soils are
more susceptible.
• Management Plant beans in fertile soil; foliar fungicide application may
be required.
BY GA
12/03/2022 415
 Cont.
Pests Category : Insects

• Aphids (Cowpea aphid, Pea aphid, etc.) Aphis

craccivora
Acyrthosiphon pisum
Symptoms
• Small soft bodied insects on underside of leaves
and/or stems of plant;
• usually green or yellow in color, but may be pink,
brown, red or black depending on species and
host plant;
• if aphid infestation is heavy it may cause leaves
to yellow and/or distorted, necrotic spots on
leaves and/or stunted shoots;
• aphids secrete a sticky, sugary substance called
honeydew which encourages the growth of sooty
mold on the plants.
12/03/2022 BY GA 416
 Cont.
Management
• If aphid population is limited to just a few leaves or shoots then the
infestation can be pruned out to provide control;
• check transplants for aphids before planting;
• use tolerant varieties if available;
• reflective mulches such as silver colored plastic can deter aphids from
feeding on plants;
• sturdy plants can be sprayed with a strong jet of water to knock aphids
from leaves;
• insecticides are generally only required to treat aphids if the
infestation is very high - plants generally tolerate low and medium
level infestation;
• insecticidal soaps or oils such as neem or canola oil are usually the
best method of control;
• always check the labels of the products for specific usage guidelines
prior to use.
12/03/2022 BY GA 417
 Peas Common Pests and Diseases
• Diseases Category : Fungal
• Aphanomyces root rot (Common root rot)
Aphanomyces euteiches
• Symptoms
• Leaves turning yellow starting from bottom of plant
and moving upwards; pod production reduced; soft
dark lesions on roots; plants may be severely stunted.
• Cause Fungus
• Comments
• Disease emergence favors high soil moisture;
• currently a problem in the mid west and northeast US.
• Management
• No fungicides effectively control this disease and no
pea varieties with high resistance, control therefore
relies on avoiding planting in infested fields;
• rotate crops to avoid build up of disease in soil.
12/03/2022 BY GA 418
 Cont.
Pests
• Category : Insects
• Aphids (Pea aphid, Bean aphid, Cowpea aphid, Melon
aphid, Peach aphid, etc.) Acyrthosiphon pisum
Aphis spp.
Myzus persicae
• Close-up image of a pea aphid (Acyrthosiphon pisum)
• Symptoms
• Small soft bodied insects on underside of leaves and/or
stems of plant; usually green or yellow in color, but may be
pink, brown, red or black depending on species and host
plant;
• if aphid infestation is heavy it may cause leaves to yellow
and/or distorted, necrotic spots on leaves and/or stunted
shoots;
• aphids secrete a sticky, sugary substance called honeydew
which encourages the growth of sooty mold on the plant.
12/03/2022 BY GA 419
 Cont.
Management
• If aphid population is limited to just a few leaves or shoots then the
infestation can be pruned out to provide control;
• check transplants for aphids before planting; use tolerant varieties if
available;
• reflective mulches such as silver colored plastic can deter aphids from
feeding on plants;
• sturdy plants can be sprayed with a strong jet of water to knock aphids
from leaves;
• insecticides are generally only required to treat aphids if the
infestation is very high - plants generally tolerate low and medium
level infestation;
• insecticidal soaps or oils such as neem or canola oil are usually the
best method of control;
• always check the labels of the products for specific usage guidelines
prior to use
12/03/2022 BY GA 420
 Bulb Pests and Diseases
• Onion Common Pests and Diseases
Diseases
• Category : Fungal
• Black mold Aspergillus niger
• Symptoms of black mold on onion bulb
Symptoms
• Post-harvest black discoloration at neck;
• lesions on outer scales;
• black streaks under outer dry scales;
• entire surface of bulb turning black and
shriveling
• Cause Fungus
Comments
• Wash hands thoroughly after coming into
contact with fungus
12/03/2022 BY GA 421
 Cont.
Management

• Treat seeds with appropriate

fungicide prior to planting to
reduce rot in mature bulbs;
• avoid bruising bulbs during
and after harvest;
• storing at temperatures below
15°C (59°F) prevents mold
from spreading but it will
resume once temperature
increases.
12/03/2022 BY GA 422
 Cont.
Pests
• Category : Mites
• Bulb mites Rhizoglyphus spp.
Tyrophagus spp.
• Symptoms
• Stunted plant growth;
• reduced stand;
• bulbs rotting in ground or in storage;
• pest is a cream-white, bulbous mite <1 mm
in length, which resembles a pearl with legs
• Cause Arachnid
• Comments
• Damage to plants by bulb mites allows
secondary invasion by other pathogens and
can cause bulb rots
12/03/2022 BY GA 423
 Cont.
Management
• Do not plant successive
crops of onion or garlic in
same location;
• allow field to fallow to
ensure that any residual
organic matter decomposes
completely - crop residues
can harbor mite populations;
• treating garlic seed cloves
with hot water prior to
planting may help reduce
mite populations.
12/03/2022 BY GA 424
 Garlic Common Pests and Diseases
• Diseases Category : Fungal
• Downy mildew Peronospora destructor
Symptoms
• Pale spots or elongated patches on leaves; gray-purple
fuzzy growth on leaf surface; leaves turning pale then
yellow; leaf tips collapsing
• Cause Fungus
Comments
• Disease emergence favored by cool temperatures and leaf
wetness
Management
• Avoid planting infected sets; rotate crops to non-allium
species for 3-4 years;
• plant in well-draining areas and do not overcrowd plants;
destroy all infected crop debris;
• apply appropriate foliar fungicides taking care to apply
thoroughly to waxy leaves
12/03/2022 BY GA 425
 Cont.
Pests
• Category : Insects
• Leaf miners Lyriomyza spp.
• Example of typical leaf miner damage (onion
leaf)
• Symptoms
• Thin, white, winding trails on leaves;
• heavy mining can result in white blotches on
leaves and leaves dropping from the plant
prematurely;
• early infestation can cause yield to be reduced;
• adult leaf miner is a small black and yellow fly
which lays its eggs in the leaf;
• larvae hatch and feed on leaf interior.
• Cause Insects

12/03/2022 BY GA 426
 cont.

Comments
• Mature larvae drop from leaves into soil to
pupate;
• entire lifecycle can take as little as 2 weeks in
warm weather;
• insect may go through 7 to 10 generations per
year
Management
• Check transplants for signs of leaf miner
damage prior to planting;
• remove plants from soil immediately after
harvest;
• only use insecticides when leaf miner damage
has been identified as unnecessary spraying will
also reduce populations of their natural
enemies
12/03/2022 BY GA 427
 Leek Common Pests and Diseases
• Diseases
• Category : Fungal
• Botrytis leaf blight Botrytis squamosa
Symptoms
• Small white lesions with light green halos which
may expand slightly as they age;
• in prolonged periods of moisture fungus may
develop rapidly and cause leaf blighting
• Cause Fungus
Comments
• Disease emergence favors high humidity and
warm temperatures;
• fungus survives on piles of crop debris or in soil;
• older leaves more susceptible to blighting than
younger leaves
12/03/2022 BY GA 428
 Cont.

Management
• Plant leeks in single rows allowing at
least 30 cm between plants to
promote good air circulation and
quick drying of foliage after rain;
• time irrigation to allow plants time
to dry out sufficiently;
• apply appropriate fungicide sprays
when plants have at least five true
leaves and early symptoms of disease
12/03/2022 BY GA 429
 Pests Category : Insects
• Leaf miners Lyriomyza spp.
Symptoms
• Thin, white, winding trails on leaves;
• heavy mining can result in white blotches on leaves
and leaves dropping from the plant prematurely;
• early infestation can cause fruit yield to be reduced;
• adult leaf miner is a small black and yellow fly which
lays its eggs in the leaf;
• larvae hatch and feed on leaf interior.
• Cause Insects
Comments
• Mature larvae drop from leaves into soil to pupate;
• entire lifecycle can take as little as 2 weeks in warm
weather;
• insect may go through 7 to 10 generations per year.

12/03/2022 BY GA 430
 Cont.

Management
• Check transplants for signs of leaf miner
damage prior to planting;
• remove plants from soil immediately after
harvest;
• only use insecticides when leaf miner damage
has been identified as unnecessary spraying
will also reduce populations of their natural
enemies

12/03/2022 BY GA 431
 Tomato Common Pests and Diseases
• Diseases Category : Fungal
• Anthracnose Colletotrichum coccodes
• Sunken, and circular lesions on the fruit is a characteristic
symptom.
• Potato
• Anthracnose on tomato fruit
•  Symptoms
• Fruit symptoms are the most common although stem, leaves
and roots can also be infected;
• disease causes characteristic sunken circular lesions on the fruit;
• the indentations on may have visible concentric brown and
yellow rings;
• lesion centers turn tan in color as they mature and become
dotted with small black fungal fruiting bodies (microsclerotia);
•12/03/2022
lesions can grow very large BY GA 432
 Cont.
• Cause Fungus
Comments
• Disease emergence
favors warm weather;
• a ppears early in the
spring
Management
• Avoid sprinkler irrigation
when fruit is ripening;
• rotate crops with other
non-solanaceous plants.

12/03/2022 BY GA 433
 Pests
• Category : Insects
• Aphids (Peach aphid, Potato aphid) Myzus persicae
Macrosiphon euphorbiae
• Aphids feeding on tomato (note presence of 'mummies' -
parasitized aphids)
• Green peach aphid adult
Symptoms
• Small soft bodied insects on underside of leaves and/or
stems of plant; usually green or yellow in color, but may
be pink, brown, red or black depending on species and
host plant;
• if aphid infestation is heavy it may cause leaves to
yellow and/or be distorted, necrotic spots on leaves
and/or stunted shoots;
• aphids secrete a sticky, sugary substance called
honeydew which encourages the growth of sooty mold
on the plants.
• Cause Insect
12/03/2022 BY GA 434
 Cont.
Comments
• Distinguishing features of aphids include the
presence of cornicles (tubular structures) which
project backwards from the insect's body;
• aphids will generally not move very quickly
when disturbed;
• aphids may also transmit plant viruses to the
plant when they feed.
Management
• If aphid population is limited to just a few leaves
or shoots then the infestation can be pruned
out to provide control;
• check transplants for aphids before planting;
• use tolerant varieties if available;
12/03/2022 BY GA 435
 Cont.

• reflective mulches such as silver colored plastic can

deter aphids from feeding on plants;
• sturdy plants can be sprayed with a strong jet of
water to knock aphids from leaves;
• insecticides are generally only required to treat
aphids if the infestation is very high - plants
generally tolerate low and medium level infestation;
• insecticidal soaps or oils such as neem or canola oil
are usually the best method of control;
• always check the labels of the products for specific
usage guidelines prior to use.
12/03/2022 BY GA 436
 Eggplant Common Pests and Diseases
• Category : Fungal
• Cercospora leaf spot Cercospora melongenae
• Cercospora leaf spot on eggplant foliage
• Symptoms
• Symptoms appear first on lower part of plant
and move upwards;
• initial symptoms are small circular or oval
chlorotic spots on leaves which develop light
to dark brown centers;
• as the lesions expand, they may develop
concentric zones;
• severely infested leaves may dry out and curl
then drop from the plant.
• Cause Fungus
12/03/2022 BY GA 437
 Cont.
Comments
• Fungus can survive over winter on
crop debris in soil.
Management
• Irrigate plants in the morning to
allow plenty time for plants to dry
out during the day;
• irrigate at base of plant to avoid
leaf wetness; use adequate plant
spacing to decrease humidity in the
plant canopy; applications of
appropriate protective fungicides
can protect plants from disease.
12/03/2022 BY GA 438
 Pests
• Category : Insects
• Aphids (Peach aphid, Potato aphid) Myzus persicae
Macrosiphon euphorbiae
• Green peach aphid (Myzus persicae)
• Green peach aphid nymph
Symptoms
• Small soft bodied insects on underside of leaves and/or stems of
plant;
• usually green or yellow in color, but may be pink, brown, red or
black depending on species and host plant;
• if aphid infestation is heavy it may cause leaves to yellow and/or
be distorted, necrotic spots on leaves and/or stunted shoots;
• aphids secrete a sticky, sugary substance called honeydew
which encourages the growth of sooty mold on the plants.
• Cause Insect
12/03/2022 BY GA 439
 Cont.

Comments
• Distinguishing features of aphids include the presence of
cornicles (tubular structures) which project backwards from
the insect's body;
• aphids will generally not move very quickly when disturbed;
• aphids may also transmit plant viruses to the plant when they
feed.
Management
• If aphid population is limited to just a few leaves or shoots
then the infestation can be pruned out to provide control;
• check transplants for aphids before planting;
• use tolerant varieties if available;

12/03/2022 BY GA 440
 Cont.

• reflective mulches such as silver colored plastic can

deter aphids from feeding on plants;
• sturdy plants can be sprayed with a strong jet of
water to knock aphids from leaves;
• insecticides are generally only required to treat
aphids if the infestation is very high - plants
generally tolerate low and medium level infestation;
• insecticidal soaps or oils such as neem or canola oil
are usually the best method of control;
• always check the labels of the products for specific
usage guidelines prior to use.

12/03/2022 BY GA 441
 Potato Common Pests and Diseases
• Diseases Category : Bacterial
• Bacterial ring rot Clavibacter michiganensis
• Potato plant showing ring rot symptoms
• Cross-section of infected potato tuber showing
ring of discolored vascular tissue
• Symptoms
• Wilting stems and leaves; dying leaves; lower
leaves wilting first;
• ring of creamy yellow to brown rot visible
when tuber is cut crossways
• Cause Bacterium
• Comments
• Becterium is tuber-borne; bacteria can enter
tuber through cutting wounds; disease favored
by wet, warm soils; bacteria overwinter in
potato debris
12/03/2022 BY GA 442
 cont.

Management
• Plant only certified seed
potatoes - certified seed
potatoes are grown in seed beds
with zero tolerance of ring rot;
• remove all crop debris from soil
after harvest; sanitize tools and
equipment regularly.

12/03/2022 BY GA 443
 Pests Category : Insects
• Aphids (Peach aphid, Potato aphid) Myzus persicae
Macrosiphon euphorbiae
• Adult potato aphid and offspring
• Symptoms
• Small soft bodied insects on underside of leaves and/or stems
of plant; usually green or yellow in color, but may be pink,
brown, red or black depending on species and host plant;
• if aphid infestation is heavy it may cause leaves to yellow
and/or distorted, necrotic spots on leaves and/or stunted
shoots; aphids secrete a sticky, sugary substance called
honeydew which encourages the growth of sooty mold on
the plants
• Cause Insects
• Comments
• Aphids are most damaging to potato through the
12/03/2022 BY GA 444
transmission of viruses such as Potato leaf roll virus
 Cont.

Management
• If aphid population is limited to just a few leaves or shoots then the
infestation can be pruned out to provide control;
• check transplants for aphids before planting; use tolerant varieties if
available; reflective mulches such as silver colored plastic can deter
aphids from feeding on plants;
• sturdy plants can be sprayed with a strong jet of water to knock
aphids from leaves;
• insecticides are generally only required to treat aphids if the
infestation is very high - plants generally tolerate low and medium
level infestation;
• insecticidal soaps or oils such as neem or canola oil are usually the
best method of control;
• always check the labels of the products for specific usage guidelines
prior to use
12/03/2022 BY GA 445
 Sweet potato Common Pests and Diseases

• Diseases Category : Fungal

• Alternaria leaf spot & Leaf and stem blight Alternaria spp.
• Random scatter of dark brown lesions with concentric rings
and yellow halo
Symptoms
• Brown lesions on leaves with concentric rings resembling
a target;
• lesions are usually restricted to the older leaves and may
be surrounded by a yellow halo;
• small gray-black oval lesions with lighter centers may occur
on stems and leaf petioles and occasionally on leaves;
• stem and petiole lesions enlarge and often coalesce
resulting in girdling of the stem; defoliation may occur.
•12/03/2022
Cause Fungus BY GA 446
 Cont.

Comments
• Stem and leaf petiole blight is much more
destructive than leaf spots caused by
Alternaria;
• stem and petiole blight is a severe disease of
sweet potato in East Africa and has also been
reported from Asia, South America and Cuba
Management
• Destroy all sweet potato crop residue
immediately following harvest;
• plant resistant or tolerant sweet potato
varieties where available;
• plant only disease-free seed material
12/03/2022 BY GA 447
 Pests Category : Insects
• Sweet Potato stem borer Omphisa anastomosalis
• Symptoms
• Larvae bores into the stem leading to the storage roots.
• Feeding in the crown region leads to wilting, yellowing
and dying of plant.
• The borers can be easily identified by the presence of
fecal matter on the soil surface and holes on the stem.
• Cause Insect
• Comments
• Larva is light-purple and/or yellowish-white in color.
Management
• Keep the field free from weeds especially Ipomoea spp.
• Fallow the land for few season if infestation is more.
• Use insect free planting material.
• Use pheromone traps to monitor and control the insect.

12/03/2022 BY GA 448
 Pumpkin Common Pests and Diseases
• Diseases Category : Fungal
• Alternaria leaf blight Alternaria cucumerina
• Symptoms
• Small, yellow-brown spots with a yellow or
green halo which first appear on the oldest
leaves;
• as the disease progresses, lesions expand and
becone large necrotic patches, often with
concentric patternation;
• lesions coalesce, leaves begin to curl and
eventually die.
• Cause Fungus
Comments
• Disease is prevalent in growing areas where
temperatures are high and rainfall is frequent.
12/03/2022 BY GA 449
 Cont.

Management
• Cucurbits should be rotated with another crop every 2
years to reduce levels of inoculum;
• crop debris should be removed from the field as quickly
as possible after harvest or plowed deeply into the soil;
• applications of appropriate protective fungicides can
help to slow the development of the disease;
• water plants from the base rather than from above to
reduce periods of leaf wetness which are conducive to
the development and spread of disease.
12/03/2022 BY GA 450
 Pests Category : Insects

• Aphids (Green peach aphid, Melon aphid)

Myzus persicae
Aphis gossypii
• Symptoms
• Small soft bodied insects on underside of
leaves and/or stems of plant; usually
green or yellow in color, but may be pink,
brown, red or black depending on species
and host plant;
• if aphid infestation is heavy it may cause
leaves to yellow and/or distorted, necrotic
spots on leaves and/or stunted shoots;
aphids secrete a sticky, sugary substance
called honeydew which encourages the
growth of sooty mold on the plants.
• Cause Insect
12/03/2022 BY GA 451
 Beet armyworm larva

Comments
• Distinguishing features include the presence of
cornicles (tubular structures) which project backwards
from the body of the aphid;
• will generally not move very quickly when disturbed.

12/03/2022 BY GA 452
 Cont.

Management
• If aphid population is limited to just a few leaves or shoots then
the infestation can be pruned out to provide control;
• check transplants for aphids before planting; use tolerant
varieties if available; reflective mulches such as silver colored
plastic can deter aphids from feeding on plants;
• sturdy plants can be sprayed with a strong jet of water to knock
aphids from leaves; insecticides are generally only required to
treat aphids if the infestation is very high - plants generally
tolerate low and medium level infestation;
• insecticidal soaps or oils such as neem or canola oil are usually
the best method of control; always check the labels of the
products for specific usage guidelines prior to use
12/03/2022 BY GA 453
 Squash Common Pests and Diseases

• Diseases Category : Fungal

• Alternaria leaf blight Alternaria cucumerina
• Symptoms
• Small, yellow-brown spots with a yellow or green
halo which first appear on the oldest leaves;
• as the disease progresses, lesions expand and
become large necrotic patches, often with
concentric patternation;
• lesions coalesce, leaves begin to curl and
eventually die.
• Cause Fungus
• Comments
• Disease is prevalent in growing areas where
temperatures are high and rainfall is frequent.
12/03/2022 BY GA 454
 Cont.

Management
• Cucurbits should be rotated with another crop every
2 years to reduce levels of inoculum;
• crop debris should be removed from the field as
quickly as possible after harvest or plowed deeply
into the soil;
• applications of appropriate protective fungicides can
help to slow the development of the disease;
• water plants from the base rather than from above
to reduce periods of leaf wetness which are
conducive to the development and spread of disease.
12/03/2022 BY GA 455
 Pests Category : Insects
• Aphids (Peach aphid, Melon aphid) Myzus persicae
Aphis gossypii
• Aphid colony on underside of gourd leaf
Symptoms
• Small soft bodied insects on underside of leaves and/or
stems of plant;
• usually green or yellow in color, but may be pink, brown,
red or black depending on species and host plant;
• if aphid infestation is heavy it may cause leaves to yellow
and/or distorted, necrotic spots on leaves and/or stunted
shoots;
• aphids secrete a sticky, sugary substance called honeydew
which encourages the growth of sooty mold on the plants
• Cause Insects
12/03/2022 BY GA 456
 Aphid colony on underside of gourd leaf

Comments
• Distinguishing features include the presence of cornicles
(tubular structures) which project backwards from the
body of the aphid;
• will generally not move very quickly when disturbed
12/03/2022 BY GA 457
12/03/2022 BY GA 458
 Cont.

Management
• If aphid population is limited to just a few leaves or shoots
then the infestation can be pruned out to provide control;
check transplants for aphids before planting; use tolerant
varieties if available;
• reflective mulches such as silver colored plastic can deter
aphids from feeding on plants; sturdy plants can be sprayed
with a strong jet of water to knock aphids from leaves;
• insecticides are generally only required to treat aphids if the
infestation is very high - plants generally tolerate low and
medium level infestation; insecticidal soaps or oils such as
neem or canola oil are usually the best method of control;
• always check the labels of the products for specific usage
guidelines prior to use
12/03/2022 BY GA 459
 Lettuce Common Pests and Diseases
• Diseases Category : Fungal
• Anthracnose (Shot-hole) Microdochium panattonianum
Symptoms
• Small water-soaked tan spots on outer leaves which may
expand and turn straw colored; centers fall out of mature
lesions giving plant a shot-hole appearance
• Cause Fungus
Comments
• Fungus survives in crop debris in soil; disease spread by
splashing water
Management
• Rotate crops; plow crop debris into soil; control wold
lettuce populations around plantation; avoid overhead
irrigation
12/03/2022 BY GA 460
 Lettuce head infected with leaf drop
disease

12/03/2022 BY GA 461
 Pests
• Category : Others
• Bottom rot Rhizocto
• Symptoms of bottom rot on iceberg lettuce
clearly showing lesions associated with leaf
midribs
• Symptoms
• Small red to brown spots on lower leaves,
usually on underside of midrib which may
expand rapidly causing the leaves to rot;
• amber colored liquid may ooze from leaf
lesions;
• as stems rot, head of lettuce becomes slimy
and brown and collapse;
• a tan or brown mycelial growth may be visible
in infected tissue
• Cause Fungus
12/03/2022 BY GA 462
 Cont.

Comments
• Fungus survives on crop debris in soil;
• disease emergence favored by warm, wet weather
Management
• Disease is most effectively managed by combining
cultural control with fungicide application;
• plow soil before planting;
• rotate crops regularly;
• avoid irrigation close to harvest;
• plant varieties with an erect growth habit to reduce
leaf contact with soil;
•12/03/2022
apply appropriate foliarBYfungicides
GA 463
 Spinach Common Pests and Diseases
• Diseases Category : Fungal
• Anthracnose Colletotrichum spp.
• Symptoms
• Small water-soaked spots on leaves which
enlarge and turn tan or brown in color with a
papery texture;
• if infection is severe, lesions may coalesce
and cause severe blighting
• Cause Fungi
Comments
• Disease emergence is favored by very wet
weather;
• spores are spread by splashing water

12/03/2022 BY GA 464
 Cont.

Management

• Only plant seed from disease-free

plants;
• avoid sprinkler or overhead irrigation
where possible, watering plants from the
base to reduce leaf wetness;
• copper fungicides are sometimes used
in the case of an epidemic but are largely
ineffective at controlling the disease

12/03/2022 BY GA 465
 Pests Category : Insects
• (Aphids, Peach aphid, Potato aphid) Myzus persicae
Macrosiphon euphorbiae
Symptoms
• Small soft bodied insects on underside of leaves and/or
stems of plant;
• usually green or yellow in color, but may be pink, brown, red
or black depending on species and host plant;
• if aphid infestation is heavy it may cause leaves to yellow
and/or distorted, necrotic spots on leaves and/or stunted
shoots;
• aphids secrete a sticky, sugary substance called honeydew
which encourages the growth of sooty mold on the plants
• Cause Insects
Comments
• Distinguishing features include the presence of cornicles
(tubular structures) which project backwards from the body
of the aphid; will generally not move very quickly when
disturbed
12/03/2022 BY GA 466
 Cont.
Management

• If aphid population is limited to just a few leaves or shoots

then the infestation can be pruned out to provide control;
check transplants for aphids before planting; use tolerant
varieties if available;
• reflective mulches such as silver colored plastic can deter
aphids from feeding on plants; sturdy plants can be sprayed
with a strong jet of water to knock aphids from leaves;
• insecticides are generally only required to treat aphids if the
infestation is very high - plants generally tolerate low and
medium level infestation;
• insecticidal soaps or oils such as neem or canola oil are
usually the best method of control; always check the labels
of the products for specific usage guidelines prior to use
12/03/2022 BY GA 467
 Swiss Chard Common Pests and Diseases
• Diseases Category : Bacterial
• Bacterial soft rot Erwinia spp.
• Symptoms Water-soaked, brown lesions on the
leaves; center of leaves breaking down
• Cause Bacteria
Comments
• Bacteria is common in most soils, particularly if
area is frequently planted with susceptible crops
Management
• Remove and destroy infected plants; avoid
planting in poorly draining soil;
• rotate crops with corn, small grains or grasses
where possible;
• treat soil with an insecticide prior to planting to
reduce damage caused by grubs and larvae
which promotes bacterial soft rot
12/03/2022 BY GA 468
 Pests Category : Insects
• Darkling beetle (Rove beetle) Blapstinus spp.
Staphylinid spp
Symptoms
• Feeding damage on stems; death of seedlings;
seeds dug up; insect is a dull blue-black or brown
beetle about 0.6 cm (0.52 in) long; tips of antennae
are often enlarged, resembling a club
• Cause Insect
• Comments Beetles are generally active at night;
during the day beetles hide in organic debris
Management
• Ditches filled with water can prevent spread of
beetle to/from adjacent fields; remove all weeds
from garden borders;
• if beetle is problematic then appropriate
insecticides can provide control; insecticides are
usually in the form of baits
12/03/2022 BY GA 469
 Carrots Common Pests and Diseases
• Diseases Category : Fungal
• Alternaria leaf blight Alternaria dauci
• Symptoms of Alternaria leaf blight on carrot foliage
Symptoms
• Green-brown water-soaked lesions on leaves which
enlarge and turn dark brown or black; lesions may
coalesce causing leaves to yellow and die;
• lesions may be present on petioles
• Cause Fungus
Comments
• Disease emergence favored by wet foliage and warm
weather;
• rain and fog enhance the development of the disease;
• fungus survives in soil on crop debris but is killed
when the debris decomposes.

12/03/2022 BY GA 470
 Cont.
Management
• Disease can be difficult to control in wet, warm
conditions;
• apply appropriate fungicides when first symptoms
appear or as a protective measure in humid areas;
• treat seeds with fungicide or hot water prior to
planting;
• apply gibberellic acid to carrot foliage to promote
upright growth and promote air circulation
through canopy

12/03/2022 BY GA 471
 Pests Category : Insects
• Aphids (Willow-carrot aphid) Cavariella aegopodii
• Willow-carrot aphid colony
• Symptoms
• Small soft bodied insects on underside of leaves
and/or stems of plant; usually green or yellow in
color;
• if aphid infestation is heavy it may cause leaves to
yellow and/or distorted, necrotic spots on leaves
and/or stunted shoots;
• aphids secrete a sticky, sugary substance called
honeydew which encourages the growth of sooty
mold on the plants.
• Cause Insect
• Comments
• Distinguishing features include the presence of
cornicles (tubular structures) which project
backwards from the body of the aphid;
• will generally not move very quickly when disturbed;
willow-carrot aphid will also attack parnip, parsley
and celery.
12/03/2022 BY GA 472
 Cont.
Willow-carrot aphid colony

12/03/2022 BY GA 473
 Cont.
Management
• If aphid population is limited to just a few leaves or shoots
then the infestation can be pruned out to provide control;
check transplants for aphids before planting; use tolerant
varieties if available;
• reflective mulches such as silver colored plastic can deter
aphids from feeding on plants; sturdy plants can be sprayed
with a strong jet of water to knock aphids from leaves;
• insecticides are generally only required to treat aphids if the
infestation is very high - plants generally tolerate low and
medium level infestation;
• insecticidal soaps or oils such as neem or canola oil are usually
the best method of control; always check the labels of the
products for specific usage guidelines prior to use.
12/03/2022 BY GA 474
 Radishes Common Pests and Diseases
• Diseases Category : Fungal
• Alternaria blight Alternaria spp.
Symptoms
• Yellow, dark brown or black circular spots on leaves
with concentric rings on leaves, petioles, stems and/or
flowers; center of lesions may dry and drop out, giving
the leaf spots a shot-hole appearance; spots coalesce
to form large necrotic patches; leaf drop may occur
• Cause Fungus
• Comments Disease emergence favors warm, wet
weather
Management
• Plant only certified, disease-free seed; treat seeds
with hot water prior to planting; rotate crops to non-
brassica species; irrigate plants in morning to allow
sufficient time to dry out during the day; apply
appropriate fungicide
12/03/2022 BY GA 475
 Category: Bacterial
• Black root Aphanomyces raphari
Symptoms
• Small black-blue areas on roots which
expand and girdle taproot; roots
become constricted at site of lesions;
black discoloration extends into root.
• Cause Fungus
Comments
• Fungus can survive in soil for
prolonged periods
Management
• Plant resistant radish varieties;
• rotate crops with non-brassica species.
12/03/2022 BY GA 476
 Okra Common Pests and Diseases
• Diseases Category: Fungal
• Charcoal rot Macrophomina phaseolina
• Symptoms Discoloration of stem at soil line; cankers on stem
may spread upwards; leaves may wilt and drop from plant;
numerous small black sclerota (fungal fruiting bodies) develop
in affected tissues and can be used to diagnose the disease
• Cause Fungus
Comments
• Fungus had a wide host range and affects beans, tobacco,
soybean, pigeon pea and many other crops; disease is
primarily spread via micro sclerota in the soil.
Management
• Rotate crop to non-host to reduce build-up of inoculum in
the soil; avoid water stress to plants by irrigating when
required.
12/03/2022 BY GA 477
 Pests Category: Insects
• Aphids (Green peach aphid, Potato aphid, etc.) Myzus persicae
Macrosiphum euphorbiae
Symptoms
• Small soft bodied insects on underside of leaves and/or stems
of plant; usually green or yellow in color, but may be pink,
brown, red or black depending on species and host plant; if
aphid infestation is heavy it may cause leaves to yellow and/or
distorted, necrotic spots on leaves and/or stunted shoots;
aphids secrete a sticky, sugary substance called honeydew
which encourages the growth of sooty mold on the plants.
• Cause Insects
Comments
• Distinguishing features include the presence of cornicles
(tubular structures) which project backwards from the body of
the aphid; will generally not move very quickly when
disturbed.
12/03/2022 BY GA 478
 Cont.
Management

• If aphid population is limited to just a few leaves or shoots

then the infestation can be pruned out to provide control;
check transplants for aphids before planting; use tolerant
varieties if available;
• reflective mulches such as silver colored plastic can deter
aphids from feeding on plants; sturdy plants can be sprayed
with a strong jet of water to knock aphids from leaves;
insecticides are generally only required to treat aphids if the
infestation is very high - plants generally tolerate low and
medium level infestation;
• insecticidal soaps or oils such as neem or canola oil are
usually the best method of control; always check the labels
of the products for specific usage guidelines prior to use
12/03/2022 BY GA 479
 Rutabaga Common Pests and Diseases
• Diseases Category: Fungal
• Alternaria leaf spot Alternaria spp.
Symptoms
• Small dark spots on leaves which turn brown to gray;
• lesions may be round or angular and may possess a
purple-black margin;
• lesions may form concentric rings, become brittle
and crack in center; dark brown elongated lesions
may develop on stems and petioles.
• Cause Fungus
Comments
• Disease emergence favors warm, wet conditions
Management
• Plant only pathogen-free seed; rotate crops;
• applications of appropriate fungicides control disease
when present.
12/03/2022 BY GA 480
 Cont.
Pests Category: Insects

• Cabbage aphid Brevicoryne brassicaea

Symptoms
• Large populations can cause stunted growth or
even plant death;
• insects may be visible on the plant leaves and
are small, grey-green in color and soft bodied
and are covered with a white waxy coating;
• prefer to feed deep down in cabbage head and
may be obscured by the leaves
• Cause Insect
Comments
• Cabbage aphids feed only on cruciferous plants
but may survive on related weed species.
12/03/2022 BY GA 481
 Cont.
Management
• If aphid population is limited to just a few leaves or shoots
then the infestation can be pruned out to provide control;
• check transplants for aphids before planting; use tolerant
varieties if available; reflective mulches such as silver colored
plastic can deter aphids from feeding on plants; sturdy plants
can be sprayed with a strong jet of water to knock aphids
from leaves;
• insecticides are generally only required to treat aphids if the
infestation is very high - plants generally tolerate low and
medium level infestation; insecticidal soaps or oils such as
neem or canola oil are usually the best method of control;
• always check the labels of the products for specific usage
guidelines prior to use.
12/03/2022 BY GA 482
 Beet root Common Pests and Diseases
• Diseases Category: Bacterial
• Bacterial blight Pseudomonas syringae pv. aptata
Symptoms
• The infected leaves show irregular to circular shaped spots with tan to
dark brown centers and dark black borders.
• In some instance symptoms also appear on the edges of the leaves
which initially may appear water-soaked and later turn yellow and then
necrotic.
• These spots may join together between the veins and the dried area
falls off, which gives a ragged appearance.
• Cause Bacterium
Comments
• The bacteria spread mainly by splashing rainfall, mechanical and insect
injuries. The pathogen also infects other crops like bean, eggplant,
lettuce, and pepper.
Management
• Use healthy and disease-free seeds.
12/03/2022 BY GA 483
 Cont.
Bacterial blight symptoms

12/03/2022 BY GA 484
 Cont.
Pests Category: Nematodes

• Beet cyst nematode Heterodera schachtii

Symptoms
• The symptoms may vary depend on the stage of the crop
infected by the nematode.
• The infected seedling exhibit stunting and reduced leaf growth.
• Also the older leaves of seedlings will become yellow and
wilted during the hot period of the day.
• Below ground, the roots appear stunted with lots of secondary
roots.
• Also the infected roots show yellow-brown cysts.
• If the nematodes infect the older plants the symptoms are not
much noticeable.
• Cause Nematode
12/03/2022 BY GA 485
 Cont.

Comments
• Nematodes are mainly transmitted by irrigation water,
equipment, weed plants etc.
Management
• Keep the field free from weeds.
• Follow crop rotation.
• Deep summer plowing helps in exposing cyst in the
soil to sunlight.
• Grow available resistant varieties.

Beet plants
infested with
beet cyst nematode
12/03/2022 BY GA 486
 Cantaloupe/muskmelon Common Pests and Diseases
• Diseases Category: Fungal
• Alternaria leaf blight Alternaria cucumerina
Symptoms
• Small, yellow-brown spots with a yellow or green
halo which first appear on the oldest leaves;
• as the disease progresses, lesions expand and
becone large necrotic patches, often with
concentric patternation;
• lesions coalesce, leaves begin to curl and
eventually die.
• Cause Fungus
Comments
• Disease is prevalent in growing areas where
temperatures are high and rainfall is frequent.
12/03/2022 BY GA 487
 Cont.

• Cucurbits should be rotated with another crop

every 2 years to reduce levels of inoculum;
• crop debris should be removed from the field
as quickly as possible after harvest or plowed
deeply into the soil;
• applications of appropriate protective fungicides
can help to slow the development of the
disease;
• water plants from the base rather than from
above to reduce periods of leaf wetness which
are conducive to the development and spread
of disease.
12/03/2022 BY GA 488
 Cont.
Pests Category: Insects
• Aphids (Peach aphid, Melon aphid) Myzus persicae
Symptoms
• Small soft bodied insects on underside of leaves and/or
stems of plant; usually green or yellow in color, but may be
pink, brown, red or black depending on species and host
plant;
• if aphid infestation is heavy it may cause leaves to yellow
and/or distorted, necrotic spots on leaves and/or stunted
shoots;
• aphids secrete a sticky, sugary substance called honeydew
which encourages the growth of sooty mold on the plants.
Cause Insect
Comments
• Distinguishing features include the presence of cornicles
(tubular structures) which project backwards from the body
of the aphid; will generally not move very quickly when
disturbed.
12/03/2022 BY GA 489
 Cont.
Colony of peach aphids on a leaf

12/03/2022 BY GA 490
 Cont.
Management
• If aphid population is limited to just a few leaves
or shoots then the infestation can be pruned
out to provide control;
• check transplants for aphids before planting;
use tolerant varieties if available; reflective
mulches such as silver colored plastic can deter
aphids from feeding on plants;
• sturdy plants can be sprayed with a strong jet of
water to knock aphids from leaves; insecticides
are generally only required to treat aphids if the
infestation is very high - plants generally
tolerate low and medium level infestation;
• insecticidal soaps or oils such as neem or
canola oil are usually the best method of
control; always check the labels of the products
for specific usage guidelines prior
12/03/2022
to use.
BY GA 491
 Parsnip Common Pests and Diseases

• Diseases Category: Oomycete

• Cavity spot Pythium spp.
Symptoms
• Sunken, elliptical, gray lesions across the root; outer
layer of root ruptures and develops dark, elongated
lesions; small vertical cracks may form on the
cavities.
• Cause Fungi
Comments
• Fungi can persist in soil for several years and disease
outbreaks are associated with wet soils; flooded soil
increases the number of cavities formed.
Management
• Some cultural practices can control the disease:
avoid planting in fields/areas known to previously
had carrot spot; do not over-fertilize plants;
application(s) of appropriate fungicide can provide
adequate control.
12/03/2022 BY GA 492
 Cont.

Pests Category: Insects

• Aphids (Willow-carrot aphid) Cavariella aegopodii

• Symptoms Small soft bodied insects on
underside of leaves and/or stems of plant; usually
green or yellow in color; if aphid infestation is
heavy it may cause leaves to yellow and/or
distorted, necrotic spots on leaves and/or stunted
shoots; aphids secrete a sticky, sugary substance
called honeydew which encourages the growth of
sooty mold on the plants
• Cause Insect
• Comments
• Distinguishing features include the presence of
cornicles (tubular structures) which project
backwards from the body of the aphid; will
generally not move very quickly when disturbed;
willow-carrot aphid will also attack parsnip,
parsley and celery
12/03/2022 BY GA 493
 Cont.
Management
• If aphid population is limited to just a few leaves or
shoots then the infestation can be pruned out to
provide control;
• check transplants for aphids before planting; use
tolerant varieties if available;
• reflective mulches such as silver colored plastic can
deter aphids from feeding on plants; sturdy plants
can be sprayed with a strong jet of water to knock
aphids from leaves;
• insecticides are generally only required to treat
aphids if the infestation is very high - plants
generally tolerate low and medium level infestation;
• insecticidal soaps or oils such as neem or canola oil
are usually the best method of control;
• always check the labels of the products for specific
usage guidelines prior to use
12/03/2022 BY GA 494
 Watermelon Common Pests and Diseases
• Diseases Category: Fungal
• Alternaria leaf blight Alternaria cucumerina
Symptoms
• Small, yellow-brown spots with a yellow or
green halo which first appear on the oldest
leaves; as the disease progresses, lesions
expand and becone large necrotic patches,
often with concentric patternation; lesions
coalesce, leaves begin to curl and
eventually die
• Cause Fungus
Comments
• Disease is prevalent in growing areas where
temperatures are high and rainfall is
frequent.

12/03/2022 BY GA 495
 Cont.

Management
• Cucurbits should be rotated with
another crop every 2 years to reduce
levels of inoculum;
• crop debris should be removed from
the field as quickly as possible after
harvest or plowed deeply into the soil;
• applications of appropriate protective
fungicides can help to slow the
development of the disease;
• water plants from the base rather than
from above to reduce periods of leaf
wetness which are conducive to the
development and spread of disease.
12/03/2022 BY GA 496
 Cont.
Pests Category: Insects

• Aphids (Peach aphid,

Melon aphid) Myzus
persicae
Aphis gossypii

12/03/2022 BY GA 497
 Cont.
Symptoms
• Small soft bodied insects on underside of leaves
and/or stems of plant;
• usually green or yellow in color, but may be pink,
brown, red or black depending on species and host
plant;
• if aphid infestation is heavy it may cause leaves to
yellow and/or distorted, necrotic spots on leaves
and/or stunted shoots; aphids secrete a sticky, sugary
substance called honeydew which encourages the
growth of sooty mold on the plants.
• Cause Insects
Comments
• Distinguishing features include the presence of
cornicles (tubular structures) which project backwards
from the body of the aphid;
• will generally not move very quickly when disturbed.
12/03/2022 BY GA 498
 Cont.
Management
• If aphid population is limited to just a few leaves or shoots
then the infestation can be pruned out to provide control;
• check transplants for aphids before planting; use tolerant
varieties if available; reflective mulches such as silver
colored plastic can deter aphids from feeding on plants;
sturdy plants can be sprayed with a strong jet of water to
knock aphids from leaves;
• insecticides are generally only required to treat aphids if
the infestation is very high - plants generally tolerate low
and medium level infestation;
• insecticidal soaps or oils such as neem or canola oil are
usually the best method of control; always check the labels
of the products for specific BYusage
12/03/2022 GA
guidelines prior to use. 499
 Bell peppers Common Pests and Diseases

• Diseases Category: Fungal

• Anthracnose Colletotrichum
spp.

12/03/2022 BY GA 500
 Cont.
Symptoms

• Circular lesions on fruit which contain tan to

orange to black concentric rings in the center;
• lesions usually reach 3 cm (1.2 in) in diameter
but may enlarge to cover most of the fruit
surface;
• lesions may also occur on leaves and stems and
appear as irregularly shaped gray spots with dark
margins
• Cause Fungi
Comments
• Anthracnose is found in all major vegetable
growing areas worldwide and can cause large
losses if left untreated
12/03/2022 BY GA 501
 Cont.
Management
• Always plant disease-free seeds
and transplants; seeds can be freed
from infection by treating with hot
water at 52°C (125.6°F) for 30
minutes;
• if disease is known to present, the
field should be rotated with non-
susceptible crops for a period of 3
years;
• plowing crop residue deeply into
the soil removing crop debris can
help to reduce inoculum in the soil
12/03/2022 BY GA 502
 Cont.

Pests Category: Insects

• Aphids Myzus persicae

Lady beetles are

voracious aphid feeders and an
adult beetle will eat 50 or
more aphids a day. 
12/03/2022 BY GA 503
 Cont.
Symptoms
• Small soft bodied insects on underside of leaves and/or stems
of plant; usually green or yellow in color, but may be pink,
brown, red or black depending on species and host plant;
• if aphid infestation is heavy it may cause leaves to yellow
and/or distorted, necrotic spots on leaves and/or stunted
shoots;
• aphids secrete a sticky, sugary substance called honeydew
which encourages the growth of sooty mold on the plants.
• Cause Insect
• Comments Distinguishing features include the presence of
cornicles (tubular structures) which project backwards from
the body of the aphid; will generally not move very quickly
when disturbed.
12/03/2022 BY GA 504
 Cont.
Management
• If aphid population is limited to just a few leaves or
shoots then the infestation can be pruned out to
provide control; check transplants for aphids before
planting; use tolerant varieties if available;
• reflective mulches such as silver colored plastic can
deter aphids from feeding on plants; sturdy plants
can be sprayed with a strong jet of water to knock
aphids from leaves;
• insecticides are generally only required to treat
aphids if the infestation is very high - plants
generally tolerate low and medium level infestation;
insecticidal soaps or oils such as neem or canola oil
are usually the best method of control;
• always check the labels of the products for specific
usage guidelines prior to use.
12/03/2022 BY GA 505
 THE END
Thank you!!!

12/03/2022 BY GA 506