Course Code

837
Course coordinator

Dr. Zaheer Ahmad

 Unit No.2

Introduction to Educational
Research
 What is Research?

• Research is not only a set of skills, but

also a way of thinking. Within this
framework of thinking,
• A systematic means of problem solving
(Tuckman 1978)
• 5 key characteristics:
 What is Research?

1. Systematic – research process

2. Logical – induction/deduction
3. Empirical – evidence based
4. Reductive – generalisation
5. Replicable – methodology.
 Educational Research

• The application of the scientific method to

study educational problems
• The goal is to explain, predict, and/or
control educational phenomena
 Educational Research
• Steps for conducting educational research
– Selection of a problem
– Use of specific research procedures to design and collect data
– Analysis of data
– Statement of conclusions based on the results of the data
analyses
• Parallels the steps in the scientific method
 Educational Research
• Difficulties conducting educational research
– Involves human beings and the complexities associated with
them
– Difficulties generalizing from specific studies
– Problems when imposing sufficient controls to conduct
research in educational settings
– Complications when observing in educational settings
– Indirect measurement of the variables being studied
 Main characteristics
Research is purposive
Research is objective
Research endeavors to organize data in
quantitative terms
Research usually involves hypothesis
Research collects facts
Emphasis on discovery of scientific generalization
Research is unbiased
 Specific Characteristics of Educational Research
•
1. Educational research must be related to the study of complex relationships of
various facts. It requires an inter-disciplinary approach. 
2. Educational research usually employs methods of description, explanation,
interpretation, sympathetic of intuitive understanding methods which are
mainly speculative and deductive in character and which rarely furnish results
that can be subjected to measurement of mathematical procedures. 
3. Educational research should come out of a desire to do things better. It should
help them to narrow down the proverbial gap between theory and practice in
education. 
4. Educational research is not as exact as research in physical science. No human
beings have ever been found to be alike. No scientific investigations of human
behaviour - even those of so called – “identical twins” have resulted in the
findings of individuals completely similar in structure or behaviour. This fact
stands in the way of making educational research an exact science.
5. Educational research should be concerned directly with the problems of
school. It can properly concern itself with such matters as child development,
class organization, teacher-pupil relationships interaction with the community,
curriculum matters, teaching techniques, and many others.
 Educational research leads to following advantages:

• Educational research economies efforts and increases efficiency

• Brings confidence in teacher
• Bring dignity to the work of the teacher.
• Leads to adoption of new method.
• It keeps up alert
• Brings sense of awareness
• Bring better understanding of teaching learning process
• Enables to have better understanding of social life.
• promotes educational reforms.
 Review the Available
Literature

Publish Formulate a
Findings Question
Research Process
Interpret Select an Appropriate
Findings Research Design

Collect Relevant
Data
 Research Design Continuum
Research Design

Analytical Research Experimental Research

Descriptive Research Pre-designs

Reviews
Quasi-designs
Philosophical Case Study Survey

Historical True-designs
Cross-Sectional
Meta-Analyses
Longitudinal
Statistical-
Correlational designs
 Types of Research Designs

Research D esigns

Quantitative Qualitative Analytical Study Mixed Method

C ase Study C oncept Analysis

Non-Experimental E xperimental

P henomenaology Historical Analysis

D escriptive True Ethnography

C omparative Quasi Grounded Theory

C orrelational Single Subject

C ausal C omparative
 Action Research Design
• Systematic investigation
• Emphasis on teachers, counselors, and
administrators
• Brings together characteristics of systematic
inquiry and practice
 Classifying Research
Two helpful ways to view research

• 1 Research By Purpose

• 2 Research by Methods
 Research By Purpose
• Five categories
I. Basic
II. Applied
III. Evaluation
IV. Research and development (R & D)
V. Action
 Research by Methods
1. Descriptive Research.
1. Quantitative Research (Survey, Causal-comparative, Correlation)
2. Qualitative Research ( Case study, Ethnography, Phenomenology, Grounded
theory)

2. Experimental Research. (Qualitative Research)

1. Pre-experimental designs
2. True-experimental designs
3. Quasi-experimental designs
4. Factorial design

3. Historical Research.(Qualitative Research)

Legal Research, Bibliography Research are the part of the Historical Research
 Four Functions of Research
• Basic: research designed to test or refine theory
• Applied: research conducted in a field of
common practice and concerned with the
application and development of research based
knowledge
 Four Functions of Research
• Action: research designed to solve a specific
classroom or school problem, improve practice,
or make a decision at a single local site
• Evaluation: research designed to assess the merit
and worth or a specific practice in terms of the
values operating at a site
 Data
• Two way of Data

– Primary Data

– Secondary Data
 Population
• Population: A particular group of individuals or
elements who are the focus of the research
Two way of Population
1. Target population: The target population is also know as the
theoretical population and refers to the entire group of individuals or objects to
which a researcher is interested to generalize the conclusions. This type of
population usually has varying degree of characteristics.

2. Accessible population: The accessible population as the

study population. It is the population to which a researcher can apply the
conclusion of the study. This population is a subset of the target population.
 The Big Picture

Population Sampling

Sample
Statistical
Inference
 Statistical Inference

Statistical inference is the process of drawing

conclusions about the entire population based
on information in a sample.
 Statistic and Parameter
A parameter is a number that describes some
aspect of a population.
A statistic is a number that is computed from
data in a sample.

• We usually have a sample statistic and want to

use it to make inferences about the population
parameter
 The Big Picture

Population Sampling
PARAMETER
S
Sample
STATISTICS
Statistical
Inference
 Sample
• A sample is simply a subset or subgroup of population. Sampling
is the process of selecting some individuals from the accessible
population in a way that these individuals represent whole
accessible population.
• Sampling frame: A listing of every member of the population,
using the sampling criteria to define membership in the
population
• Subjects are selected from the sampling frame
• Sampling plan: Outlines strategies used to obtain a sample for a
study
– Probability sampling plans
– Non probability sampling plans
 Probability Sampling
• Simple random sampling
• Stratified random sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Systematic sampling
 Non probability Sampling
• Quantitative research
– Convenience (accidental) sampling
– Quota sampling
• Qualitative research
– Purposive sampling
– Network or snowball sampling
– Theoretical sampling
 Convenience Sampling
• Also called accidental sampling
• Weak approach to sampling because it is hard to
control for bias
• The sample includes whomever is available and
willing to give consent.
• Representativeness is a concern.
 Quota Sampling
• Uses convenience sampling, but with a strategy
to ensure inclusion of subject types who are
likely to be underrepresented in the convenience
sample
• Goal is to replicate the proportions of subgroups
present in the population
• Works better than convenience sampling to
reduce bias
 Purposeful or Purposive Sampling

• Also called judgmental or selective sampling

• Efforts are made to include typical or atypical
subjects.
• Sampling is based on the researcher’s judgment.
 Network Sampling
• Also called snowball sampling
• Takes advantage of social networks to get the
sample
• One person in the sample asks another to join the
sample, and so on.
 Theoretical Sampling
• Used in grounded theory research
• Data are gathered from any individual or group
that can provide relevant data for theory
generation.
• The sample is saturated when the data collection
is complete based on the researchers’
expectations.
• Diversity in the sample is encouraged.
 What is a Hypothesis
• A hypothesis is a prediction regarding the
possible outcome of a study

• Type of Hypothesis
– Null Hypothesis (H0)
– Alternative Hypothesis (Ha)
Hypotheses from a Single Research Question
Thank You
Presented By Mr. Safiullah
Ph.D (Education)
safiullah.pedo@gmail.com
03159254686
Course coordinator
Dr. Zaheer Ahmad