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22 Research Methodologies in Science Education Research

Quantitative
Research: Non
Experimental Design
Descriptive research, Causal-Comparative research, and
Correlational research

Wafa Hanifah (2208387) and Zuana Habibaturrohmah (2208158) 20

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 Table of contents
01 Quantitative Research
Definition, Characteristics, and Causal-Comparative
Example 04 Research
Definition, Characteristics, and
Non Experimental
02 Research Design Example

05 Correlational Research
Definition, Characteristics, and
03 Descriptive Research Example

Definition, Characteristics, and

Example
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01
What is Quantitative
Research?
And how do we conduct it?

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 Quantitative Research
Explaining a phenomena by collecting numerical data
that are analyzed using mathematically based
methods (statistics). (Aliaga and Gunderson (2002) in
Mujis (2004).

Characteristics of quantitative research:

● Tests theory
● Establishes facts
● Shows relationships
● Well-structured data representation
● Can produce predictive outcomes
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02
Non Experimental
Research
And how do we conduct it?

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 The type of research in which the researcher
Non Experimental observes the phenomena as they occur
Reserach naturally, then the researcher collect data without
doing treatments.

• The independence variables cannot be

Non experimental maintained.
• It is unethical to manipulate the independent
research can be variable, i.e manipulation may cause physical or
conducted when: psychological harm to subjects.
• Where it is not practically possible to conduct
experiments.
• Descriptive type studies that do not require any
experimental approaches.
 Non experimental research examples based on research
question or hypothesis:

Research question or hypothesis relates to a single variable

• How accurate are students’ first impression toward science subject?

Research question pertains to a non-causal statistical relationship between

variables
• Is there a correlation between verbal intelligence and mathematical intelligence?
• How is the correlation between scientific literacy and students’ achcievement?
• What is the relation between student’s interest and students’ achievement?
 Non experimental research examples based on research
question or hypothesis:

Research question is broad and exploratory, or is about a particular

experience
• What is it like to be a working mother diagnosed with depression?

Research question is about causal relationship, but the independent

variable cannot be manipulated or participants cannot be randomly
assigned to conditions or orders of conditions for practical or ethical
reasons
• Does damage to a person’s hippocampus impair the information of long term memory traces?
• Does dyslexia cause damage to students’ confidence and achievement?
Types of non experimental research:

Descriptive Causal Comparative

1 2
Research Design Research Design

Correlational
3
Research Design
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03
Descriptive Research
Definition, Characteristics, and
Example

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 Description: understanding what people or things mean.
Descriptive a type of quantitative research that involves making
Research careful descriptions of educational phenomena,
concerned primarily with determining ‘what is’

to create a detailed description of a phenomenon:

for example, people’s opinions about educational
issues or how teachers and students act in certain
Purposes
situations.

Some descriptive studies involve primarily the administration of questionnaires or interviews to

samples of research participants (sometimes called survey research) that has yielded much
valuable knowledge about opinions, attitudes, and practices.
 Types of Descriptive Research Design

1) Description of a sample at 2) Longitudinal description

one point in time
● Involves nothing more than reporting the
characteristics of one sample at one point in
time
● Example: opinion polls, surveys of people’s
behavior
of a sample
● Involves collecting data from a sample at
different points in time in order to study
changes or continuity in the sample’s
characteristics
● 4 kinds of longitudinal research: trend,
cohort, panel, and cross-sectional
 Longitudinal description of a sample

1 Trend Studies 3 Panel Studies

Describing change by selecting a Involving to select a sample at the
different sample at each data- outset of the study and then at each
collection point from a population subsequent data-collection point
that does not remain constant. surveying the same sample.

2 Cohort Studies 4 Cross-Sectional Studies

Describing change by selecting a Obtaining the data at one point in
different sample at each data- time, but from groups of different
collection point from a population ages or at different stages of
that remains constant. development
 Steps in Descriptive Research

01 02 03 04

Formulating Stating research Selecting an Collecting

Problem hypotheses, appropriate and
questions, or sample and analyzing
objectives measures the data
Advantage of Descriprive Research

• The unique data collection form of case studies

• Allowing to formulate hypotheses, as well as provide a large amount of valuable data for the
development of future investigations

Disadvantage of Causal-Comparative Research

• If the questions are not well formulated, the answers obtained may not be entirely reliable, which
makes it difficult to carry out a credible investigation
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04
Causal Comparative
Research
Definition, Characteristics, and
Example

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 Investigators attempt to determine the cause or
Causal-Comparative effects of differences that already exist between
Research or among groups of individuals.

1. Attempts to identify cause and effect relationship.

2. Involve two or more group variables.
3. Involve making comparisons.
4. Individuals are not randomly selected and Characteristics
assigned to two or more groups.
5. Cannot manipulate the independence variables.
6. Less costly and time consuming.
The Design of Causal-Comparative Research:
The basic design involves selecting two groups that differ on a particular variable of
interest and then comparing them on another variable or variables. The researcher forms
two or more groups and compares them in order to explore possible causes/reason or
effects/results/consequences of a phenomenon.

• Group may differ in two ways:

(a) One group possesses a characteristics that other does not.
(b) Each group has the characteristics, but no differing degrees or amounts.
• The difference between the groups, however, has already occurred naturally.
 The types of design:

1 Prospective causal- 2 Retrospective causal-

comparative research
The basic approach starts with
cause to investigates its effects
on some variable.
Example: Interviewing people who are at high
risk of getting infected with HIV for a couple of
years to see if they will get infected.
comparative research
The basic approach starts
investigating a particular question
when the effects have already
occurred and then attempts to
determine the cause, whether one
variable may have influenced another
variable.

Example: Interviewing people who are HIV

positive, ask about their lifestyle choices and
medical history to study the origins of the disease.
 Planning a Causal-Comparative Research

01 02 03 04 05

Statement of Selecting a Selecting Data Data

the research defined comparison collection analysis
problem group groups
Advantage of Causal-Comparative Research

• Allowing us to study cause-and-effect relationships under conditions where experimental

manipulation is difficult or impossible
• Many such relationships can be studied in a single research project

Disadvantage of Causal-Comparative Research

• Determining causal patterns with any degree of certainty is difficult
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05
Correlational Research
Definition, Characteristics, and
Example

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 Research where the relationship between two or more
Correlational variables are examined in natural setting without any
intervention. It focuses on the statistical relationship
Research between two variables but does not include the
manipulation of an independent variable.

1. To explore causal relationship between

variables.
2. Prediction: If there is a relationship between Purposes
two variables, we can make predictions about
one from another.
3. Validity: Correlation between a new measure
and an established measure.
 Characteristics

• Independent variable influences dependent variable without any intervention.

For example: a correlational investigation of the study habits and visual acuity among
students in Bandung.
• Also called as cause and effect study.
• Highly used in education and social sciences studies.
• Provide a measure of the degree of relationship over the entire or certain range.
• Correlating two or more continuous variables (group are not formed and compared).
 Types of Correlational Research

Positive correlation Negative Correlation

is a relationship between two is a relationship between two
variables in which both variables variables in which an increase in
move in the same direction. one variable is associated with a
decrease in the other.

Example: the relations Example: the correlations

between students’ between students’ attitude with
vocabularies knowledge their absence rate
and reading
comprehension, which then
we can predict.
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Example of Correlational Research

By Cheryl M. Scrivner

Problem: (a) the relationship between teacher
dispositions toward students, curriculum, and
professionalism and student achievement.
(b) predictions related to student achievement
that may be made based on teacher
dispositions as measured by the TDI
dimensions after controlling for teacher
demographic variables such as gender, grade
level, years of experience, and degree.
Population: teacher dispositions and 2 years of
student achievement results on state reading and
math achievement tests for each participating
teacher's classroom. .
Method: Correlational research design. Also
utilizing a quantitative design involving
survey research and multiple regression data
analysis

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Example of Correlational Research

By Cheryl M. Scrivner

Instrument:
(a) Teacher Dispositions Index (TDI) survey
developed by Schulte, Edick, Edwards, and
Mackiel (2005).
(b) Students achievement in Math and English
(min 2 years).
(c) Teacher demographic surveys
Result:
1. The TDI student-centered score negatively
related to reading and math achievement.
2. Teaching experience positively related to
reading achievement.
3. The reading redression analysis having a
similar patter to the 2006 scores, but
presenting only professionalism, curriculum-
centered.
4. None of the predictor variables were a sig.
predictor towards math achievement.

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 Resources
● Gall, M. D., Borg, W. R., & Gall, J. P. (1996). Educational research: An introduction.
Longman Publishing.
● Scrivner, C. M. (2009). The relationship between student achievement and teacher attitude:
A correlational study (Doctoral dissertation, Northcentral University).
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Thank You
For the attention 

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