Experiments 1

MASS and VOLUME MEASUREMENTS

Objective ; to attain skill in the use of a three-beam

balance ,graduated cylinder, burret and pipette
 Experimental error
• We can never measure a quantity exactly, because
measuring devices are made to limited specifications
and we use our imperfect senses and skills to read
them.
• Therefore, every measurement includes some
uncertainty.
• An error is introduced in every measurement no
matter how precise the instrument and how skilled
the person is.
• An error is defined as the deviation of the
measured values from accepted or true value

i.e. E= Xi – T or -T

Xi= individual measured value

T true value
X bar =mean value
Instrumental: When the instrument being used does not
function properly causing error in the experiment (such as a
scale that reads 2g more than the actual weight of the object,
causing the measured values to read too high consistently)
• Observational: When the person inaccurately reads a
measurement wrong (such as when not standing straight-on
when reading the volume of a flask causing the volume to be
incorrectly measured)
Random Errors:
• Random errors occur randomly, and sometimes have no
source/cause
There are two types of random errors
1. Observational: When the observer makes consistent
observational mistakes (such not reading the scale correctly and
writing down values that are constantly too low or too high)
2. Environmental: When unpredictable changes occur in the
environment of the experiment (such as students repeatedly
opening and closing the door when the pressure is being
measured, causing fluctuations in the reading)
 Instruments that Measure Mass

 Balances are utilized to measure the mass of

matter.
 Typically, high school and middle schools will use
triple beam balances for laboratory activities.
 Colleges will rely on digital balances.
 For larger quantities of materials, top-loading digital
balances are employed.
 For higher sensitivity and accuracy, some chemists
use analytical balances.
triple beam balances top-loading digital balances
analytical balances
The three beam balance
 Experiment 2
Bunsen Burner
Objective ;to learn handling the bunsen burner and study
properties of its flam

• Bunsen burner is heat

source in the laboratory
• The principle of work of bunsen burner is the combustion of
gas composed of lower hydrocarbons.
• Thus, the source of gas in the burner could be methane,
ethane, propane, etc.
• These all are natural gases and can be controlled by the
burner.
Open Air Hole
• The Bunsen burner has a color that you can turn to open or
close an air hole.
• The air hole allows the air from the room to be drawn into
the chimney and mix with the gas and therefore allow a
plentiful supply of oxygen for the gas to react with. That
results in complete combustion.
• This produce a blue nonluminous flam
methane + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water

A very hot, noisy, non-luminous, roaring blue

flame is produced.
Closed Air Hole

When the air hole is closed the natural gas can only mix with air

at the mouth of the chimney. There is therefore not enough

oxygen for complete combustion and incomplete

combustion occurs.

methane + oxygen → carbon monoxide + carbon(soot)

A bright luminous yellow flame occurs.

 Half-Closed Hole

• This is best for heating liquids.

• It does not produce much soot but is not as high energy as the
roaring blue flame, therefore the liquid heats more evenly and
you get less 'spitting'
• The oxidising flame is the flame produced with an excessive
amount of oxygen.
• All of the carbon that gets used can be turned into CO2 so
there is actually no soot.
• This means that there is complete oxidation and due to increasing
darkening it doesn't produce much light and becomes non-
luminous

. Due to this reason non-luminous flame is also

called oxidising flame
• In luminous flame there is partial oxidation due to lesser
availability of oxygen.
• A luminous flame is a bright light emitting usually yellow due
to un burnt carbon or hydrocarbons which reduce the
oxygen contained in the materials processed with the flame.
• Due to this reason luminous flame is also called as reducing
flame.
Experiment 3
Experiment 4 Diffusion of gases

• Gases consist of particles that are in constant rapid motion.

This motion causes gases to travel across space (diffuse) and

completely mix with each other.

• Diffusion is the gradual mixing of gases due to the motion of

their component particles even in the absence of mechanical

agitation such as stirring.

• The result is a gas mixture with uniform composition.

 Graham Law

• The rate of effusion of a gaseous substance is inversely

proportional to the square root of its molar mass
• Thomas Graham. In 1829, he proposed his law of diffusion
which states that the rate of diffusion of a gas is inversely
proportional to the square root of its density:

the ideal gas law indicates

that the density of a gas and
its molecular weight are
proportional,
  If the rates of diffusion of two gases are compared, this yields the
following equations:

Where R1=rate of diffusion of gas 1

R1= rate of diffusion of gas 2
MW1=molar weight of gas 1
MW2= molar weight of gas 2

 Thus, if the rates of diffusion of two gases are known and the
molecular weight of one of them is known, the molecular weight of
the other gas can be calculated:
• The ring usually forms nearer to the hydrochloric acid end of the
tube because hydrogen chloride diffuses more slowly than
ammonia. This is because hydrogen chloride has almost twice the
molecular weight of ammonia, and the rate of diffusion is inversely
proportional to the square root of the molecular mass of the gas.
 Experiment 5 Determination of water of hydration
Objective : to determine the percentage of water of hydration

• Many ionic compounds naturally contain water as part of

the crystal lattice structure.
• A hydrate is a compound that has one or more water
molecules bound to each formula unit.
• Ionic compounds that contain a transition metal are often
highly colored
•  A hydrate can usually be converted to the anhydrous
compound by heating
 Hydrates are compounds that have a specific
number of water molecules attached to them.
BaCl2•2H2O barium chloride dihydrate

LiCl•H2O lithium chloride monohydrate

MgSO4•7H2O magnesium sulfate heptahydrate

CuSO4•5H2O
CuSO4

• the water molecules interact with some of the \(d\) electrons in the copper ion
and produce the color. When the water is removed, the electron configuration
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changes and the color disappears
 Hydrates
Hydrated salt – salt that has water molecules trapped
within the crystal lattice
Examples: CuSO4•5H2O , CuCl2•2H2O

Anhydrous salt – salt without water molecules

Examples: CuCl2

Calculate the percentage of water in the hydrated salt!

A 5.0 gram sample of a hydrate of BaCl2 was heated, and
only 4.3 grams of the anhydrous salt remained. What
percentage of water was in the hydrate?

1. Amount water lost 2. Percent of water

5.0 g hydrate 0.7 g water x 100 = 14 %

- 4.3 g anhydrous salt
5.0 g hydrate
0.7 g water
 Experiment 6 Equivalent weight of a metal

• Equivalent weight of a substance is the mass of one

equivalent of a substance that combine or displaces a fixed

quantity of another substance

• In terms of hydrogen, oxygen and chlorine the equivalent

weight of an element is the weight equivalent to 1.008gm of

hydrogen or 8gm of oxygen or 35.5gm of chlorine.

• The equivalent weight of the element is the atomic weight
of that element divided by the valence of that element

Equivalent weight =atomic weight

valence
Eg. equivalent weight of Cl = 35.5 = 35.5
1
Eg. equivalent weight of Ca = 40.08 = 20.04
2
• The equivalent weight of a compound is the molecular weight of the
compound divided by the net positive valence:

Eg. equivalent weight of CaCO3 = 100 =50

2
Equivalent weight determination by metal displacement method

• Equivalent weight of a metal in displacement reaction can

be calculated if the equivalent Weight of one metal is
known.

Eg. Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) Cu(s) + ZnSO4(aq)

• The law of equivalents states that one equivalent of a
substance reacts with one equivalent of another.

Mass of metal 1 = mass of metal 2

Equivalent weight of metal 1 Equivalent weight of metal 2

Eg. Calculate the equivalent weight of copper when 0.382gm of

copper displace 1.296gm of silver from silver sulphate solution if the
equivalent weight of silver is 108.

Eg. Cu(s) + Ag2SO4(aq) CuSO4 (aq) + Ag(s)

 By the law of equivalent

Mass of metal 1 = mass of metal 2

Eq.wt of metal1 Eq.wt of metal2

1.296 = 0.382
108 E

E= 31.83

So, the equivalent weight of copper that displace 1.296g of silver is

31.83
Experiment 7 Heat of reaction

Exothermic process is any process that gives off heat –

transfers thermal energy from the system to the surroundings.

H2O (g) H2O (l) + energy

Endothermic process is any process in which heat has to be

supplied to the system from the surroundings.

energy + H2O (s) H2O (l)

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Schematic of Exothermic and Endothermic Processes

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 Heat Capacity and Specific Heat
•The heat capacity (C) of a substance is the amount of
heat required to raise the temperature of a given quantity
of the substance by one degree Celsius

•The specific heat (s) of a substance is the amount of

heat (q) required to raise the temperature of one
gram of the substance by one degree Celsius.
 Relationship between the heat capacity(C) and specific
heat(s)
C= ms where m is the mass of the substance in grams.

For example, the specific heat of water is 4.184 J/g C, and the heat
capacity of 60.0 g of water is

C= ms (60.0 g)(4.184 J/g . °C) = 251 J/°C

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•If we know the specific heat and the amount of a
substance, then the change in the sample’s
temperature (t) will tell us the amount of heat (q) that
has been absorbed or released in a particular process.

Heat (q) absorbed or released:

q = m x s x Dt

q = C x Dt

Dt = tfinal - tinitial

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 Calorimetry

qrxn = qwater + qcal

qrxn = - (qwater + qcal)

qwater = m x s x Dt
qcal = Ccal x Dt

Reaction at Constant P
DH = qrxn

No heat enters or leaves! 47