Topic 7.

Gamma Camera (I)

• General Comments
• Basic Principles of the Anger Camera
• Types of Gamma Cameras
 General Comments
• Why γ rays? (penetrating through the body, easily
stopped by lead, β emission or Auger electrons
can not get out of body)
• Why NaI(Tl) detector (reasonable compromise
between efficiency and cost etc. )
• Historically, γ ray imaging started from matrix
detectors of late 40s to rectilinear scanner, and to
the Anger scintillation camera of late 50s which is
the most used today.
Basic Principles of the Anger Camera

• System Components
• Detector System and Electronics
• Collimators
• Event Detection in Gamma Cameras
 System Components
• Collimator
• NaI(Tl) crystal
• Light Guide (optical coupling)
• PM-Tube array
• Pre-amplifier
• Position logic circuits (differential&addition etc.)
• Amplifier (gain control etc)
• Pulse height analyzer
• Display (Cathode Ray Tube etc).
NaI(Tl) Crystal Assembly
 Detector System and Electronics(1)

• Typical detector in Anger camera: NaI(Tl)

crystal with 1.25cm thick x 30-50 cm in
diameter (thinner for low energies, 6mm)
• Thinner crystal is preferred for Anger
camera in order to get better intrinsic
resolution therefore better image (sacrifice
intrinsic efficiency)
 Detector System and Electronics(2)

• Optical coupling materials (silicon fluid,

grease, or lucite light pipes) are placed
between the NaI(Tl) crystal and the array of
photomultiplier tubes --called light guide or
pipe
• Array of PM tubes (37,61,75 or 91, round,
hexagonal or square shapes) arranged in
hexagonal pattern
 Detector System and Electronics(3)

• Part of the signal processing circuitry

(preamplifier, pulse height analyzers,
amplifier, pulse pile-up rejection etc.) is
attached to each PM tube and sealed in a
light-tight protective housing
 Position Circuitry(1)
• The photomultiplier tubes are divided into horizontal
halves to obtain X+ and X- signals and vertical halves to
obtain Y+ and Y- signals.
• Four summing matrix circuits are used to sum up for
x+,x-,y+ and y- signals from each TM tubes where each
of these signals is the product of signal amplitude and
position factor.
• A separate summing circuit is used to sum up a total
signal Z from all PM tubes (signal amplitude only, no
position factor)
Light Sharing Between PM Tubes
 Position Circuitry(2)
• The radiation position is then determined by
X=k(X+-X-)/Z and Y=k(Y+-Y-)/Z where k is a
scale constant, Z is the total signal amplitude and
proportional to the incoming radiation energy.
• The positional signals X and Y must be
normalised by total signal Z because X and Y
themselves depend on the both signal and
positional factors (different radiation energy gives
different signal amplitude at the same position)
PM Tubes and Signal Positions
PMT Energy Window Correction
 Pulse Height Displays
• Pulse height analyzer is used to analyse the
Z signal and if accepted, signal will be
displayed on the monitor (CRT etc.) at the
position determined by X and Y.
• Two kind of display modes can be used to
display the energy spectrum, namely, Z
pulse display and multi-channel analyzer
display.
 Collimators
• Absorptive collimation is used for most γ
ray image formation (inefficient method for
utilisation of radiation)
• Four basic collimator types are used with
Anger camera and similar camera-type
imaging device: pinhole, parallel hole,
diverging and converging collimators.
Parallel-Hole Collimator
 Pinhole Collimator(1)
• A cone shape lead with a small pinhole of a few
millimeter in diameter, about 20-25 cm from the
pinhole aperture to the detector.
• The image is inverted and could be magnified or
minified depend on the object position: I/O=f/b
where I and O are image and object sizes
respectively, f is the distance between the pinhole
and the detector, b is the distance between the
object and the pinhole.
 Pinhole Collimator(2)
• The size of the imaged area changes with the
distance between the object and the
collimator b: D’=D/(I/O) where D is the
diameter of the detector and D’ is the images
area.
• Image size changes with the distance
between the object and the collimator b,
therefore, image is distorted in 3 dimension.
 Parallel Hole Collimator
• Parallel holes are drilled or cast in lead
• Sept is the walls between holes and its
thickness is chosen to prevent γ rays from
crossing from one hole to the next.
• Image is the same size as the source
distribution to the detector.
• Slant-hole collimator is a titled parallel holes
collimator.
 Diverging Collimator
• Diverging from the collimator face towards the object.
• The converging point is about 40-50cm behind from the
collimator.
• Image is minified: I/O=(f-t)/(f+b) where f is the distance
between the front of the collimator and the converging
point, t is the thickness of the collimator and b is the
distance between the object and the front of the collimator.
• Useful image area becomes larger as the image becomes
more minified. Image size depends on the object distance b
(image has distortion).
• Useful for small detector to image large organ.
 Converging Collimator
• Holes converge to a point in front of the collimator (about
40-50 cm from the collimator)
• Images are magnified & non-inverted if the objects are
placed between the converging point and the collimator
surface: I/O=(f+t)/(f+t-b). (image distortion due to b
dependence)
• Images are inverted & magnified if the objects are placed
between the converging point and twice the convergence
length and an inverted & minified image beyond that
distance (not often used).
• Useful for using large detector to image small organs
Parallel vs Converging Collimators
Gamma Camera Detection Events
Image Display and Recording Systems(1)

• Persistence CRT: displays light spots that do not fade

immediately
• Non-persistence CRT: display images for film decording
• Polaroid film is convenient in use but expensive. It is a
positive type and has limited range of optical densities
(limit both contrasts and latitude, the useful exposure
range)
• Transparency film is a negative film type (darker for
greater exposure) and has better contrasts and latitude than
Polaroid film
Image Display and Recording Systems(2)

• Polaroid cameras often have three separate

lenses, with different lens aperture opening,
to provide three deferent densities on a
single film simultaneously.
• Laser film printers are now replacing the
old film making practice in nuclear
medicine.
 Stationary or Mobile
• Anger camera can be sued for static or
dynamic imaging
• Stationary cameras are designed to be at a
fixed location while mobile camera has
wheels.
Types of Gamma Camera
Types of Gamma Camera
Types of Gamma Camera
 Scanning Camera
• Scanning Anger cameras are used for
whole body imaging
• Either detector or patient support table may
be set to move
• Diverging collimator may be used to cover
entire width of the patient’s body.
• Whole body images can be printed on a
single film.
Whole Body Bone Scan
Dynamic Sequence of Planar
Images