Vehicle Dynamics

Forces acting on a Vehicle

SUSPENSION AND STEERING
 Ride Comfort
• The quality referred to as "ride comfort" is affected
by a variety of factors, including high frequency
vibrations, body booming, body roll and pitch, as
well as the vertical spring action normally associated
with a smooth ride.
•  If the vehicle is noisy, if it rolls excessively in turns,
or lurches and pitches during acceleration and
braking, or if the body produces a booming
resonance, occupants will experience an
"uncomfortable ride." 
•  The ride quality normally associated with the
vehicle's response to bumps is a factor of the
relatively low frequency bounce and rebound
movements of the suspension system.
• Following a bump, the un-damped suspension
(without shocks) of a vehicle will experience a
series of oscillations that will cycle according
to the natural frequency of the system.
 Ride Frequency
• Ride is perceived as most comfortable when the
natural frequency is in the range of 60 to 90
cycles per minute (CPM), or about 1 Hz to 1.5
Hz.
• When the frequency approaches 120 CPM (2
Hz), occupants perceive the ride as harsh.
• A high-performance sports car will have a stiffer
suspension with a natural frequency of about
120 to 150 CPM (2 to 2.5 Hz).
 Human reaction to ride frequency
•  An adult walks at the rate of about 70 to 90
steps per minute (frequency), and the torso
moves up and down about 2 inches
(amplitude) with each step. Early designers
therefore attempted to constrain vehicle
oscillations to those limits, the ride was
indeed comfortable, and the theory was
therefore believed to be correct.
• Today, our information about human
sensitivity to vibrations is more sophisticated.
We know that amplitude affects human
sensitivity to frequency, and that there are
some frequencies that are especially
uncomfortable. 
• A frequency in the range of 30 to 50 CPM will
produce motion sickness.
• The visceral region of the body objects to
frequencies between 300 and 400 CPM.
• The head and neck regions are especially
sensitive to vibrations of 1,000 to 1,200 CPM
(18 to 20 Hz). These are the types of vibrations
that are likely to emanate from the tires or from
axle hop.
• Longitudinal oscillations are sensed primarily
in the torso.
• Surprisingly, humans are most uncomfortable
with longitudinal vibrations in the 60 to 120
CPM range (the region of greatest comfort for
vertical vibrations).
 Natural Frequency
• The natural frequency of the suspension system is
still considered the cornerstone of a comfortable
ride.

• The static deflection rate of the suspension

determines its natural frequency.

• Static deflection is the rate at which the

suspension compresses in response to weight.
• Other factors, such as the effects of damping
(shocks) and system friction, alter the natural
frequency of the suspension system.
• However, the primary determinate is the un-
damped static deflection rate.
• If this rate is used in calculations, results will
likely be very close to the actual value needed
for a smooth ride.
•  The static deflection rate of the suspension is
not the same as the spring rate. Springs are
located inboard of the wheels where they are
normally subjected to the mechanical
advantage of the suspension linkages. Static
deflection is related to the distance the sprung
mass (essentially the body) moves downward
in response to weight.
A static deflection of 10 inches in response to a weight equal to
that of the sprung mass will produce a natural frequency of 1 Hz. A
5 inch deflection produces a 1.4 Hz frequency, and a 1 inch
deflection results in a 3.13 Hz frequency. The natural frequency of
a suspension can be determined by a simple formula expressed as
follows:

• NF = Natural Frequency in Cycles Per Minute (divided by 60=Hz).

• SD = Static Deflection in Inches.
 Natural Frequency
• Equation of Motion : Natural Frequency

Figure shows a simple undamped spring-mass system, which is assumed to move

only along the vertical direction. It has one degree of freedom (DOF), because its
motion is described by a single coordinate x.
When placed into motion, oscillation will take place at the natural frequency
fn which is a property of the system. We now examine some of the basic concepts
associated with the free vibration of systems with one degree of freedom.
By measuring the displacement x from the static equilibrium position, the
forces acting on m are

With x chosen to be positive in the downward direction, all quantities - force,

velocity, and acceleration are also positive in the downward direction.
We now apply Newton's second law of motion to the mass m :
It is evident that the choice of the static equilibrium position as reference for x has
eliminated w, the force due to gravity, and the static spring force kD from the equation
of motion, and the resultant force on m is simply the spring force due to the
displacement x.
By defining the circular frequency w n by the equation
 Damping Ratio
Damping is an influence within or upon an oscillatory
system that has the effect of reducing, restricting or
preventing its oscillations. In physical systems,
damping is produced by processes that dissipate the
energy stored in the oscillation. 
The damping ratio is a dimensionless measure
describing how oscillations in a system decay after a
disturbance. Many systems exhibit oscillatory behavior
when they are disturbed from their position of static
equilibrium.
 Damping Ratio
• A mass suspended from a spring, for example,
might, if pulled and released, bounce up and down.
On each bounce, the system is trying to return to its
equilibrium position, but overshoots it. Sometimes
losses (e.g. frictional) damp the system and can
cause the oscillations to gradually decay in
amplitude towards zero.
• The damping ratio is a measure of describing how
rapidly the oscillations decay from one bounce to
the next.
• The damping ratio is a system parameter,
denoted by ζ (zeta), that can vary from 
• undamped (ζ=0), 
• underdamped (ζ<1)
• through critically damped (ζ=1)
• to overdamped (ζ>1).
 Oscillation Cases
• Where the spring–mass system is completely lossless, the
mass would oscillate indefinitely, with each bounce of equal
height to the last. This hypothetical case is called un-damped.
• If the system contained high losses, for example if the spring–
mass experiment were conducted in a viscous fluid, the mass
could slowly return to its rest position without ever
overshooting. This case is called overdamped.
• Commonly, the mass tends to overshoot its starting position,
and then return, overshooting again. With each overshoot,
some energy in the system is dissipated, and the oscillations
die towards zero. This case is called underdamped.
 Critical Damping
• Between the overdamped and underdamped
cases, there exists a certain level of damping
at which the system will just fail to overshoot
and will not make a single oscillation. This case
is called critical damping. The key difference
between critical damping and overdamping is
that, in critical damping, the system returns to
equilibrium in the minimum amount of time.
• The damping ratio is a parameter, usually
denoted by ζ (zeta),that characterizes
the frequency response of a second order
ordinary differential equation. It is particularly
important in the study of control theory. It is
also important in the harmonic oscillator.
• The damping ratio provides a mathematical
means of expressing the level of damping in a
system relative to critical damping.
• For a damped harmonic oscillator with
mass m, damping coefficient c, and spring
constant k, it can be defined as the ratio of the
damping coefficient in the system's differential
equation to the critical damping coefficient:
Critical Damping
• Using the natural frequency of a harmonic oscillator  and the definition of the
damping ratio above, we can rewrite this as:

where C and s are both complex constants. That approach assumes a solution that is

oscillatory and/or decaying exponentially. Using it in the ODE gives a condition on the
frequency of the damped oscillations,
Damping Calculation Roadmap
 Implications of High Payload-to-Vehicle Weight Ratio

•  As vehicle mass is reduced, the payload-to-vehicle weight ratio

naturally increases, which has trickle-down effects throughout the
vehicle. An extremely low mass automobile, in the order of 1,000
pounds or less, for example, will have an unusually high payload-
to-vehicle weight ratio. 
• Variations in payload affect the natural frequency of the
suspension. 
• The critical damping force also varies with load.
• Over-damping (above 100 percent) dramatically reduces ride
quality.
• In order to avoid over-damping at light loads, some degree of
under damping is usually accepted at the fully-laden weight. 
• A suspension in combination with a high payload-to-vehicle
weight ratio require a relatively high static deflection rate (a stiff
suspension) in order to avoid undesirable effects on vehicle ride
height. 
• Ride height refers to the height of the body at a given load. It is
important to keep ride height variations within predetermined
limits in order to provide adequate suspension stroke, and to
provide an appropriate ground clearance.
• Load naturally affects the standing height of the vehicle. As load
increases, the vehicle rests lower on its suspension, and at lighter
loads it rests higher. Heavy loads in the luggage compartment can
affect the pitch of the vehicle.
 Importance of a high payload-to-vehicle
weight ratio
The importance of a high payload-to-vehicle
weight ratio becomes more apparent when the
effect of payload on a standard sedan is
compared to the effect of the same payload on a
hypothetical ultra light vehicle.
• For example, a standard sedan of 3,500
pounds curb weight and a natural frequency
of 1.2 Hz will rest 0.7 inch lower with the
weight of two, 175 pound occupants aboard.
• The same static deflection rate in a 1,000-
pound vehicle will cause the body to rest 2.45
inches lower with an equal, two-occupant
load.
• A deflection of this magnitude will cause significant
changes in the geometric relationship of suspension
components.
• With a single occupant load, such a suspension would
also allow the body to list to one side.
• In order to equal the payload-induced deflection of
the large car, the 1,000 pound vehicle must have a
static deflection rate of 2 inches, which will result in a
relatively stiff, sports-car-like ride of 2.2 Hz natural
frequency.
 The Ratio of Sprung to Un sprung Weight

•  Un sprung weight includes the mass of the

tires, brakes, suspension linkages and other
components that move in unison with the
wheels. 
• These components are on the roadway side of
the springs and therefore react to roadway
irregularities with no damping, other than the
pneumatic resilience of the tires.
• The rest of the mass is on the vehicle side of the
springs and therefore comprises the sprung
weight. Disturbances from the road are filtered
by the suspension system and as a result are not
fully experienced by the sprung weight.
• The ratio between sprung and un sprung weight
is one of the most important components of
vehicle ride and handling characteristics.
• The un sprung mass reacting directly to
roadway irregularities at highway speeds can
generate significant vertical acceleration
forces. These forces degrade the ride, and
they also have a detrimental effect on
handling.
• Early pioneers believed that the primary job of
the suspension system was to absorb bumps
and smooth out the ride.
• Today we understand that an equally
important function of the suspension is to
keep the tires in contact with the road.
• Obstacles impart a vertical acceleration to tires that
increases in proportion to the forward speed of the vehicle
and the size of the obstacle.
• The greater the accelerated mass (un sprung weight) the
greater the kinetic energy. In a sense, a raised obstacle
throws tires away from the roadway.
• A depression causes the surface to rapidly drop away leaving
the tire to follow along when inertia can be overcome by the
downward pressure of the springs. Both occurrences reduce
the tire's contact-pressure and tires can actually become
airborne if the forces are great enough.
•  The forces generated by roadway irregularities
(bumps) must be overcome by the springs in order to
keep tires in contact with the road.
• The force of the springs comes from the compressive
load imposed by the weight of the vehicle.
• The lighter the vehicle, the less compressive force is
available, and the easier it is for the vertical motion
of the wheels to overcome the inertia of the sprung
mass and transfer motion to it as well. 
• The sprung-to-un sprung weight ratio is particularly
important to the design of extremely low mass vehicles.
• The necessarily higher suspension frequency produces a
rougher ride, which can be accentuated by smaller tires
typical of smaller cars.
• Smaller diameter tires react more violently to bumps and
potholes. Their reduced radius causes them to move
deeper into depressions and climb more quickly over
obstacles.
• The higher acceleration rates are offset to a large degree by
the reduced mass of the smaller tires. 
Unsprung mass
 Effects of un-sprung mass
• The unsprung mass of a wheel offers a trade-off
between a wheel's bump-following ability and its
vibration isolation.
• Bumps and surface imperfections in the road cause
tire compression, inducing a force on the unsprung
mass.
• The unsprung mass then reacts to this force with
movement of its own.
• The motion amplitude for short bumps is inversely
proportional to the weight.
• A lighter wheel which readily rebounds from road bumps
will have more grip and more constant grip when tracking
over an imperfect road. For this reason, lighter wheels are
sought especially for high-performance applications.
• However, the lighter wheel will soak up less vibration. The
irregularities of the road surface will transfer to the cabin
through the suspension and hence ride quality and road
noise are worse. For longer bumps that the wheels follow,
greater unsprung mass causes more energy to be
absorbed by the wheels and makes the ride worse.
 Cornering Dynamics

Vehicle "feel" and handling characteristics have to

do with the way in which the vehicle's inertial
forces and the cornering forces of the tires act
against each other.
The magnitude and vector of the inertial forces are
established by the vehicle's weight and balance. In
a turn, angular acceleration results in a force that is
centred at the vehicle centre of gravity and acts in
a direction away from the turn centre.
• The ability to overcome these forces and
produce a controlled, stable turn depends
upon the combined characteristics of the
suspension and tires. The job of the
suspension system is to support, turn, tilt and
otherwise manage the tires and their
relationship to the vehicle and the ground in a
way that will maximize their capabilities.
 The Tires In A Turn

• At relatively low speeds (parking lot

maneuvers) the vehicle turns according to the
geometric alignment of the wheels. The
wheels roll in the direction they are heading,
and the vehicle turns about the point
established by a projection of the front axles
intersecting a projection of the rear axle. As
speed increases, the actual turn center moves
forward due to the slip angle of the tires.
 Slip angle
•  Slip angle is related to the lateral load or
cornering force of the tire. As lateral loads
increase due to higher cornering speeds, tires
creep to the outside of the turn and therefore
move in a direction that is different from their
heading. The difference between the tire's
heading and the direction of travel is called
the slip angle.
 Cornering Coefficient
• Vertical load on the tires has an effect on the
lateral cornering force generated at a given slip
angle.
• In general, cornering force increases as the
vertical load increases, but the increase is not
proportional to the load.
• The tire's ability to develop cornering force, in
relation to its vertical load, is known as its
"cornering coefficient"
 Tire Cornering Coefficient
Tire cornering coefficient declines as vertical
load increases. However, the inertial forces of a
vehicle in a turn increase in proportion to the
increase in weight. Consequently, tires that are
more lightly loaded can handle greater g-loads
during turns, which is a feature that is especially
relevant to the handling characteristics of low
mass vehicles.
• The graph shows the relationship between vertical load and
cornering coefficient .The coefficient is determined by the
percentage of rated load that is represented by the actual
vertical load imposed.
• The graph provides another way to view the relationship
between slip angle, vertical load, and lateral cornering force.
 Camber Thrust
•  Another cornering force comes from the tire's
camber angle. When a tire rolls at a camber
angle it generates a lateral force in the direction
in which it is leaning. The lateral force is known
as "camber thrust". The thrust produced by
camber angle is much less than the force
produced by slip angle. However, it can be a
significant component of the total forces that
contribute to vehicle handling characteristics.
 Camber Thrust
• Camber thrust and camber force are terms used to
describe the force generated perpendicular to the
direction of travel of a rolling tire due to its camber
angle and finite contact patch.
• Camber thrust is approximately linearly
proportional to camber angle for small
angles, reaches its steady-state value nearly
instantaneously after a change in camber angle, and
so does not have an associated relaxation length. 
• Camber stiffness is a parameter used to
describe the camber thrust generated by a tire
and it is influenced by inflation pressure and
normal load. 
• The net camber thrust is usually in front of the
center of the wheel and so generates
a camber torque, twisting torque, or twisting
moment.
 Camber Thrust
• The orientation of this torque is such that it
tends to steer a tire towards the direction that
it is leaned.
• An alternate explanation for this torque is that
the two sides of the contact patch are at
different radii from the axle and so would
travel forward at different rates unless
constrained by friction with the pavement
 Oversteer and Understeer

• The weight bias of the vehicle determines its inherent

oversteer/understeer characteristics.
• A vehicle that is heavier at the front will tend to understeer
and one that is heavier at the rear will oversteer.
• A vehicle in which the weight is equally distributed
between the front and rear axles tends to exhibit neutral
steer characteristics.
• Although the inherent understeer/oversteer characteristics
of a vehicle are determined by its weight distribution, the
design of the suspension and the selection of wheel and
tire size can enhance or moderate those characteristics.
 Understeer
Understeer results when the slip angle of the front
tires is greater than the slip angle of the rear tires. A
greater steering angle is then required in order to
maintain the turn. When the steering angle reaches
full lock and the turn cannot be maintained, the
vehicle drifts to the outside. In an understeer
condition, the driver is attempting to negotiate a turn,
but the vehicle mushes ahead refusing to cooperate.
Oversteer produces just the opposite condition.
 Oversteer
• During oversteer, the slip angle of the rear tires is
greater than the front. Consequently, the turn-rate
increases on its own and the driver therefore
reduces the steering angle to compensate. During
severe oversteer, the steering angle may reach full
lock in the opposite direction while the vehicle
continues on into the turn. The vehicle is then said
to "spin out." A vehicle that understeers is
considered safer in the hands of the average driver. 
The factors that influence vehicle dynamics are
not so precisely manageable. With the slightest
encouragement, a car with neutral steer
characteristics can easily cross over into an
oversteering condition. Consequently, designers
prefer to create some degree of understeer in
order to avoid oversteer.
 Tuning the Suspension of a Completed Vehicle

• When the suspension is designed, certain handling

characteristics are targeted. However, mechanical
compromises, errors, or limitations of the art may result
in a vehicle that does not handle precisely as intended.
• Even after the vehicle is finished, the suspension can be
tuned for different cornering characteristics.
• The variables available for tuning the suspension
include changes in tire and rim size, tire inflation
pressure, and the stiffness and location of the anti-roll
bar.
 Anti Roll Bar
• The anti-roll bar is essentially a transverse-
mounted torsion bar designed to reduce body-
roll during turns. It exerts no influence on the
suspension when wheels bounce in unison. If
vertical movement on one side exceeds the
vertical movement on the other, the anti-roll
bar exerts an opposing force. 
• Along with its primary function of reducing
body-roll, the anti-roll bar will also reduce the
combined cornering force and the adhesion
limits of the side-by-side tires that are being
acted upon.
• Consequently, the location and stiffness of the
bar can be modified to influence the
oversteering or understeering characteristics
of the vehicle.
Anti Roll Bar- Oversteering/ Understeering

• An oversteering tendency will be reduced by locating

the anti-roll bar at the front where it will reduce the
cornering force and adhesion of the front tires. If the
vehicle understeers, the anti-roll bar should be
located at the rear. If an anti-roll bar is already
required at both ends of the vehicle to achieve
adequate roll stiffness, use an anti-roll bar of greater
stiffness/diameter at the end of the vehicle where
reduced cornering force is desired, and use a less-
stiff/smaller-diameter bar at the other end.
 Effect of Polar moment of Inertia
•  A low polar moment of inertia results in a vehicle
with more responsive handling, but it also produces a
more choppy ride.
• A vehicle with high polar mass is less nimble, but it
offers a smoother ride. Sports cars tend to have a low
polar moment of inertia for nimble handling, and they
also tend to ride more roughly than passenger cars.
• Normally, a good balance between ride and handling
can be achieved. The designer does not have to decide
between one or the other extreme.
 Rollover Threshold

•  At the most fundamental level, a vehicle's rollover

threshold is established by the simple relationship between
the height of the center of gravity and the maximum lateral
forces capable of being transferred by the tires. 
• Modern tires can develop a friction coefficient as high as
0.8, which means that the vehicle can negotiate turns that
produce lateral forces equal to 80 percent of its own
weight (0.8 g) before the tires loose adhesion.
• The cg height in relation to the effective half-tread of the
vehicle determines the L/H ratio which establishes the
lateral force required to overturn the vehicle. 
As long as the side-force capability of the tires is less than the
side-force required for overturn, the vehicle will slide before it
overturns. This analysis is useful for comparing the rollover
propensity of various vehicles,
 Vehicle Rollovers
Vehicle rollovers are divided into two categories:
tripped and untripped. Tripped rollovers are
caused by forces from an external object, such
as a curb or a collision with another vehicle.
Untripped crashes are the result of steering
input, speed, and friction with the ground.
• Untripped rollovers occur when cornering forces destabilize the vehicle.
As a vehicle rounds a corner, three forces act on it: tire forces
(the centripetal force), inertial effects (the centrifugal force),
and gravity.
• The cornering forces from the tire push the vehicle towards the center
of the curve. This force acts at ground level, below the center of mass.
• The force of inertia acts horizontally through the vehicle's center of
mass away from the center of the turn.
• These two forces make the vehicle roll towards the outside of the
curve. The force of the vehicle's weight acts downward through the
center of mass in the opposite direction. When the tire and inertial
forces are enough to overcome the force of gravity, the vehicle starts to
turn over.
Steady State Cornering
• Driver + Vehicle is the Closed loop system
• Open loop is vehicle response to specific
steering responses
 Low Speed Turning
• No slip angle
• Centre of turn lie on the projection of rear
axle
High Speed Cornering
Tire Cornering Forces
• At low slip angles the relationship between
lateral force and slip angle is linear
• Lateral force = Cornering Stiffness * Slip angle
Cornering Coefficient
Cornering Equation
Bicycle model of a vehicle
Understeer Gradient
Neutral Steer
Under Steer
Over Steer
 Lateral acceleration gain

K is positive = understeer
K is negative= oversteer
K is zero= neutral steer
Side Slip Angle
Camber Change
Aligning Torque
Tractive Forces
Equivalent Trailing Arm Analysis
Steering Adjustment
Toe Change Error
Roll Steer
Roll Over of a Vehicle
Taking moment along contact patch of outer wheel
Equal and Parallel link System with short
arms
Equal and Parallel link System with short
arms- Bump/ Droop
Equal and Parallel link System with short
arms- Roll
Equal and Parallel link System with short
arms Bump/ Droop + Roll
Equal length and parallel link suspension with
relative longer links
Equal length and parallel link suspension with
relative longer links- Bump/ Droop
Equal length and parallel link suspension with
relative longer links- Roll
Equal length and parallel link suspension with
relative longer links Bump/ Droop + Roll
Unequal length Parallel links
Unequal length Parallel links- Bump/ Droop
Unequal length Parallel links- Roll
Unequal length Parallel links- Bump/ Droop +
Roll
Unequal and Unparallel links
Unequal and Unparallel links- Bump/ Droop
Unequal and Unparallel links- Roll
Unequal and Unparallel links- Bump/ Droop+
Roll
Long links vs Short links
Long links vs Short links- Bump/ Droop
Long links vs Short links- Roll
Long links vs Short links- Bump/ Droop + Roll
Wheel Travel/ Spring Travel