The linguistics of Second

Language Acquisition
EARLY APPROACHES TO SLA
 CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS

 The strong version of the contrastive analysis hypothesis is associated with Charles
Fries and Robert Lado. It predicts that second language learners will have difficulty
with aspects (structures, or vocabulary) which differ from their first language, and
conversely no problems with aspects which are similar in their first language.
 Transfer in learning (positive and negative)
 We analyze the language in order to predict the problems that are most likely to occur.
 We create language lessons based on those “predicted difficulties” and we sequence
our lessons in order of difficulty.
 It was develop in 1950´s – 1960´s
 Problems with Constrastive Analysis

 Cannot explain how learners know more than they have heard or have been
taught (“the logical problem of language learning”).
 The predictions were not accurate. Sometimes different problems appeared.
 How can you do this approach when you have multiple students with different
language backgrounds
 ERROR ANALYSIS (EA)
 CA was developed during the
1970s, became known as “error
analysis” and involved detailed
description and analysis of the
kinds of errors second language
learners make.
 Internal focus on learners’
ability to construct or create
language.
 Based on actual learner errors in
L2, not on predictions.
Assumptions of Error Analysis
 Inner forces (interaction with the
environment) push or promote learning.
 The learner is an active and creative
participant in the process rather than a passive
recipient.
 Examine the output in their own right instead
of how deficient the language is.
 Sources of insight into the learning process.
“Windows into the mind of the learner”. How
the learner is exploring the language.
Assumptions of Error Analysis (EA)
 Error Analysis Procedure
 Collect a sample of learner language
 Identify the errors  Describe the errors (according to language level, category,
or specific language elements).
 Explain the errors (interlingual “between languages”, intralingual “within the
language” or developmental).
 Evaluate the errors.
 ERROR ANALYSIS
 Fahrettin ŞANAL in his paper mention that:
 a. Identification of errors
 There are those so-called “errors” or “mistakes” that are more correctly described
as lapses. A mistake refers to a performance error, it is a failure to make use of a
known system. Everybody makes mistakes in both native and second language
situations. Normally native speakers are able to recognize and correct such
“lapses” or “mistakes” which are not the result of a deficiency in
 competence, but the result of imperfection in the process of producing
speech(Brown 1987).
 ERROR ANALYSIS
 Errors are deviances that are due to deficient competence (i-e “knowledge” of the
language, which may or may not be conscious). As they are due to deficient competence
they tend to be systematic and not self correctable. Whereas “mistakes” or “lapses” that are
due to performance deficiencies and arise from lack of attention, slips of memory, anxiety
possibly caused by pressure of time etc. They are not systematic and readily identifiable
and self correctable.(Corder 1973).
 ERROR ANALYSIS
 b. Description of errors
 As we know error analysis is a comparative process. So, in order to describe the errors, in a way,
we use a special case of contrastive analysis, and we compare synonymous utterances in the
learner’s dialect and the target language, in other words we compare “erroneous utterance” and
“reconstructed utterance”.(Corder 1973)
 According to Corder’s model (1973) any sentence uttered by the subsequently transcribed can be
analyzed for idiosyncrasies. A major distinction is made between “overt” and “covert” errors.
(Brown 1987).
 c. Explanation of errors (Tracing errors to their sources)
 In order to arrive at effective remedial measures the analyst must understand fully the
mechanism that triggers each type of error.(Şanal 2007).
 The source of an error could be Interlanguage or Intralanguage.(Richards 1971)
 ERROR ANALYSIS
 1. Errors caused by negative transfer
 If the learner of a foreign language makes some mistakes in the target language by the effect of
his mother tongue, that is called as Interlanguage errors. For example, any Turkish speaker
learning English may say, “Ahmet Fatma ile evlendi.” in his mother tongue, and he may
transfer his old habit to the target language.(Altunkaya 1985) The result would be “Ahmet
married with Fatma.” Which is not acceptable in English.
 2. Errors caused by the target language
 Learners may make mistakes in the target language, since they don’t know
 the target language very well, they have difficulties in using it .For example, they
 may say “mans” instead of saying “men” as the plural form of “man”. In that
 way the learner overgeneralize the use of plural suffixes
 Problems with Error Analysis

 Ambiguity in classification (Is the error because of a L1 influence or is it part of

the developmental process?)
 Lack of positive data (does not explain what the learner has acquired)
 Potential for avoidance (the learner may not say it because the language structure
is difficult). Problems with Error Analysis
 Larry Selinker (1972) INTERLANGUAGE
introduced the concept of
Interlanguage, which was built
upon Corder´s previous work
on language learner´s errors.
 An interlanguage has the
following characteristics:
 Systematic
 Dynamic
 Variable
 Reduced system, both in form
and function.
 Reduced form
 Reduced function
Selinker (1972) stresses that there are
differences between IL development in SLA
and L1 acquisition by children, including
different cognitive processes involved (from
McLaughlin 1987:61):
 Language transfer
 Transfer of training,
 Strategies of second language learning,
 Strategies of second language
communication,
 Overgeneralization of the target language
linguistic material,
 INTERLANGUAGE

1. Interlanguage Rules:
 Learners´interlanguage changes with time:
 Rules are alteres or deleted or added.

 The continuum of interlanguage development

 Basilang – the earliest form of latrget language developmente
 Mesolang- the intermediate stage of target language development
 Acrolang – the final stage of target languuage
 INTERLANGUAGE

2. Process of Interlanguage
Transfer

Interlanguage

Generalizations
Internal
sequences
 INTERLANGUAGE
a. Generalizations
 Generalizations are used in many learning situations
 Learners group similar things, events, information, etc. togeher into
categories
 Learners make rueles to predict how different ítems will behave.
 Learners categorizar wihat they hear and make rules for those categories
 Learners use those categories and rules in new situations.
 INTERLANGUAGE

b. Transfer
Learners use their knowledge of their first language to understand and organizae second
language information
 When there are differences in the first and second language, transfer can lead learners to make
errors
 When first and second language ara the same, transfer help learners
Examples of errors duet to tranfer:
 Pronunciation
 Vocabulary
 Speech acts
 INTERLANGUAGE

Generalization
Learners make use their knowledge of the second language

Transfer:
Learners make use of their knowledge of their first language to produce or understand a
second language.
 MORPHEME OTHER STUDIES
A list of morphemes that were included in the Brown (1973) and Dulay and Burt (1974)

English L1 Morpheme Example English L2

1 Progressive –ing He is talking 3
2 Plural –s There are two cats 4
3 Past irregular We ate 7
4 Possessive –s The child´s today 8
5 Articles a/the The cat/ A sunny day 1
6 Past regular –ed They talked 6
7 Third person –ed He sings 9
8 Copula be He´s tall 2
9 Auxiliary be She´s sinnging 5
Resources

 Saville-Troike, M. & Barto, K. (2017) Introducing Seconkd Languge Acqusition.

Cambridge University Press
 Lightbown, P. & Spada, N. (2000) How languages are learned. Oxford University Press.