Automatic Control

Lecture 3
Presented by
Dr. Walid Ghoneim
Lecture on: Block Diagrams and Signal Flow Graphs
Reference:
 Benjamin C. Kuo, “Automatic Control Systems”, Prentice Hall, Inc.
 Dorf, “Modern Control Systems”
Introduction:
• The complex dynamic systems that ought to be
controlled contains (can be simplified to) sub-systems.
• These sub-systems are represented mathematically by
differential equations in the time domain.
• The Laplace transformation turns them into algebraic
equations in the s-domain.
• Since control systems are concerned with the control of
specific variables, the controlled variables must relate
to the controlling variables.
• This relationship is typically represented by the
transfer function of the subsystem relating the
input and output variables.
Introduction:
• The Transfer Function blocks can be organized into:
1. Block Diagrams
2. Signal-Flow Graphs
to graphically depict the interconnections.

• Block diagrams and signal-flow graphs are very

convenient and natural tools for analyzing and
designing control systems.
 Block Diagrams
Dr. Walid Ghoneim
Block Diagrams:
• The importance of this cause-and-effect relationship is
clear to represent the relationship of system
variables by diagrammatic means.

• The block diagram representation of the system

relationships is dominant in control system
engineering.

• Block diagrams consist of unidirectional,

operational blocks that represent the transfer
functions of the variables of interest.
Block Diagram Reduction:
Block Diagram Reduction:
The Feedback Loop Transfer Function:

• The following terminology often used in control systems is defined with

reference to the block diagram
• r(t), R(s) = Reference Input , Set point
• c(t), C(s) = Output Signal (controlled variable)
• b(t), B(s) = Feedback Signal
• e(t), E(s) = R(s) - C(s) = Error Signal
• G(s) = C(s) / E(s) = Open-loop transfer function or forward path transfer
function
• M(s) = C(s) / R(s) = Closed-loop transfer function
• H(s) = feedback-path transfer function
• G(s).H(s) = B(s) / E(s) = Loop transfer function
The Feedback Loop Transfer Function:

• The closed-loop transfer function, M(s) = C(s)/R(s), can be expressed as a

function of G(s) and H(s).
• C(s) = E(s).G(s) and B(s) = C(s).H(s)
• The Error signal is: E(s) = R(s) - B(s)
• Substituting yields:
• C(s) = R(s).G(s) – B(s).G(s)
• C(s) = R(s).G(s) – C(s).H(s).G(s)
• Solving C(s) from the last equation, the closed-loop transfer function of the
system is given by:
• M(s) = C(s) / R(s) = G(s) / [1 + G(s).H(s)] =
Rules for Simplification /
Reduction:
1. Find Cascaded blocks : G1.G2
2.Find Parallel blocks: G1±G2
3.Find Feedback blocks: G / ( 1±G.H)

4.Move Summing Points to Summing Points

5.Successive Summing Points are exchangeable

6.Move Take-off Points to Take-off Points

7. Successive Take-off Points are exchangeable
Examples:
Examples:
Examples:
Examples:
 Signal-Flow Graphs
Dr. Walid Ghoneim
Signal-Flow Graphs :
• It is a simplified notation for a block diagram.
• It is a graphical means of portraying the input-output
relationships between the variables of a set of linear
algebraic equations.
• It was originally introduced by S. J. Mason- as a cause-
and-effect representation of linear systems.
• There is a difference in the physical appearances between
the signal flow graph and the block diagram.
• The signal flow graph is constrained by more rigid
mathematical relationships.
• It provides the answer in less number of steps.
• It can solve problems that are unsolvable with block
diagram reduction techniques.
Basic Properties of Signal Flow Graphs:
1. Nodes are used to represent variables or signals.
2. Normally, the nodes are arranged from left to right,
following a succession of causes and effects through
the system.
3. Branches represent Transfer Functions and gains: a12.
4. Signals travel along branches only in the direction
described by the arrows of the branches.
5. A signal yk traveling along a branch between nodes yk
and yj is multiplied by the gain of the branch, akj , so
that a signal <yk.ajk> is delivered at node yj.
Definitions for Signal Flow Graphs:
• Input node: represents the input signal or set-point.
• Output node: represents the output signal.
• Forward path: It is a path that starts at an input node
and ends at an output node and along which no node is
traversed more than once.
• Example:
• Input Node: y1
• Output Node: y3
• Branches: a12 and a23
• Forward Path gain: a12.a23
Definitions for Signal Flow Graphs:

• Example:
• Input Node: y1
• Output Node: y5
• Forward Paths Gains:
1. a12.a23.a34.a45
2. a12.a24.a45
3. a12. a25
Definitions for Signal Flow Graphs:
• Loop: it is a path that originates and terminates on the
same node and along which no other node is
encountered more than once.
Definitions for Signal Flow Graphs:
• Loop Gains:
• L1 = a23.a32
• L2 = a34.a43
• L3 = a44
• L4 = a34.a43.a32
General Gain Formula (Mason’s Rule):
• Where:
• N = The total number of Forward Paths.

• Pk = gain of the kth forward path.

• Δ = 1 — (sum of all individual loop gains) + (sum of

gain products of all two non-touching loops) — (sum of
the gain products of all three non-touching loops) + . . .

• Δk = the Δ for that part of the signal flow graph which is

non-touching with the kth forward path.
General Gain Formula (Mason’s Rule):
• This general formula seem difficult to use at first
glance.
• However, the only complicated term in the gain
formula is Δ.
• In practice, systems having a large number of non-
touching loops are rare.
• Two parts of a signal flow graph are said to be
non-touching if they do not share a common
node:
• One or more successive summing points.
• One or more successive take-off points.
Examples:

• Number of forward paths: N = 1

• P1 = G(s)
• Number of Loops = 1
• L1 = -G(s).H(s)
• Number of Non-touching Loops = 0
• Δ = 1 – (-G(s).H(s)) = 1 + G(s).H(s)
• This loop is touching path one, So:
• Δk = 1
• C.L.T.F = M(s) = G(s).1 / (1 + G(s).H(s))
Examples:

G4

R E Y3 Y2 Y2 Y1 C C C C
1 1 G1 1 G2 G3 1 1 1

H2
H1

1
Examples:
• Number of forward paths: N = 2
• P1 = G1. G2. G3
• P2 = G1. G4
• Number of Loops = 4
• L1 = - G2.G3.H2
• L2 = - G4.H2
• L3 = - G1.G2.G3
• L4 = - G1.G4
• L5 = - G1.G2.H1
• Δ = 1 – [ - G2.G3.H2 - G4.H2 - G1.G2.G3 - G1.G4 - G1.G2.H1]
• Number of Non-touching Loops = 0
• All loops are touching both path 1 and path 2, So: Δ1=Δ2=1
• So,
 Problems
Dr. Walid Ghoneim
Problems:
Problems:
Problems:
Problems:
 Thank you
and
All the Best

Dr. Walid Ghoneim