Liquefaction

GROUP 3
-The formation of sand volcanoes and
sand boils during liquefaction is related
to the build-up of pressure when the
ground shakes during an earthquake.

- The process of liquefaction turns the

ground into a material with quicksand-
like consistency, messing up extensive
areas including many cities, farmlands,
fishponds, and places where roads,
bridges and pipelines run through.
How does Liquefaction Occur?

- When the ground shakes,

some areas especially those
made of wet fine sand are
subjected to Liquefaction.
Types of Liquefaction Features
Flow Failures – considered the most
dangerous type of
ground failure due to
liquefaction, this occurs
on liquefiable slope mate-
rial with steepness greater
than 3 degrees.
Lateral Spreads – blocks or the broken
pieces of the flat or
very gentle ground
( less than 3 degrees)
above a liquefied zone
move laterally.
Ground Oscillation – due to the flat or
nearly flat slope,
the ground is un-
able to spread and
instead oscillates like
a wave ( back and forth
and up and down )
Loss of Bearing Strength

- loss of strength of sedi-

ments resulting in tilting
of houses and floating of
buoyant structures ( e.g.,
fuel tank ) that are anchored
on the liquefied zone.
Settlement – vertical readjustment or
settlement within the
liquefied zone as a result
of dissipation of pore-water
pressure or the ejection of
materials.
Earthquake-Induced Subsidence
Liquefaction-Related Settlement

- The eruption of boils leads to loca-

lized differential settlements.
- flow failure, lateral spreading, and
loss of bearing strength can also
cause large vertical readjustments
when earthquake shaking has sub-
sided.
Tectonic Subsidence

- Significant subsidence often

accompany the ground rupture
process.The amount of subsidence
will depend on how large the verti-
cal displacement is.
Areas and Deposits Prone to
Liquefaction

-Maps showing the potential of areas to

seismically-induced liquefaction are
indispensable in the crafting of city or
municipal ordinances and in the
revision of the national building code.
Seismically-induced liquefaction

- ordinarily occurs in areas

underlain by layers of loose,
well sorted, water saturated
sand and silty and within 30
meters of sediments of conside-
rable thickness where the water
table is close to the surface.
Soil, sediment, and certain types of vol-canic
deposits with well-sorted (almost
Same sized)
- particles having the size of fine
sand are prone to liquefaction.

- A loose state brought by the

combination of size and sorting is most
favorable for densification shaking
during eathquake.
Densification – results in increased pore-
water pressure and
decreased strength.

- Liquefaction susceptibility generally

decreases with depth because of the
heavy load of overlying sediments.
Mitigating Liquefaction Hazard

-Hazard zone maps are prepared

to identify areas potentially sub-
ject to liquefaction.
- local government units and natio-
nal government agencies can use
the information in the maps to re-
gulate the risk through ordinance
or code changes.
Volcanic Gases
- 1986, a sleepy settlement below
Lake Nyos in Cameroon (Central
Africa), which sits on top of an old
one-shot volcano (maar), fell victim
to a silent killer.
- Another key witness narrated that
the main culprint was ‘’white like
cloth’’ which did not go up in the air.
- From the trail that it had left, it was
soon realized that some kind of toxic
gas from the lake was to blame.

Volcanic Gases Generation

or Formation and Escape to the
surface
Gas – is what really makes volcanic
eruptions work.

MAGMA is composed not only of

melted minerals. It also has a volatile
fraction- substances that may
become gaseous or give off gases
when heated.
- The rapid expansion of the gases as
magma rises toward the surface can
lead to explosive eruptions.
- During eruptions, gases are forced
out through the vent along with ash
and aerosol droplets. The spread
from an erupting vent primarily as
acid rain, sulfuric acid aerosols,
compounds attached to tephra
particles, and microscopic salt
particles.
- Gases are also released from
magma that remains below ground
as an intrusion or from magma
lurking just beneath an active
volcano during periods of
quiescence.
- Gases may escape continuously
into the atmosphere from the soil,
volcanic events, fumaroles, and
hydrothermal system.
Dangerous volcanic
Gas Components and
their Effects

- The most abundant volcanic gas

released into the atmosphere is water
vapor (H2O). Other volcanic gases
include CO2, SO2, and trace amounts of
N, H, CO, S, Ar, Cl, and F. these gases
combine with hydrogen and water to
produce toxic compounds, such as
HCI, HF, H2, S04, H2S.

- Water vapor is harmless, as it is

abundant in the atmosphere.
- Health hazards caused by other
volcanic gases can range from
minor to life threatening.
- Exposure to acid gases such as sulfur
dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and
hydrogen chloride can damage eyes
and mucous membranes along with the
respiratory system and under extreme
conditions, can lead to death.
Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
- is a colorless gas with
a strong odor.
- it is the gas that smells
from lightning kitchens
match.
- 6-12 ppm, it can cause
immediate irritation of the
nose and throat and at 20ppm
it will irritate the eyes.
because it forms an acid with water,
moist skin will be irritated within
minutes at 10,000 ppm of SO2.

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S)

- is a colorless, flamma-
ble gas which smells like
a rotten egg. Like SO2, it
causes irritation of the eyes
at low concentrations.
Fluorine- is a pale yellow gas that
occurs in volcanic gas as
hydrogen fluoride (HF).
- fluorine attaches to fine ash
particles which coat grass
that can be ingested by ani-
mals.

- Apart from its effect on human and

animal health and safety, volcanic
 gases have huge impact on agricul-
ture, property, and environment.

- In addition to warming effect to

carbon dioxide released during
eruptions, the aerosols that form
from SO2 and ash particles help in
this warming process of the
stratosphere by absorbing heat
radiated up from the Earth.
Table 5.2-2. Toxicology of Volcanic
Gases
Volc.Gas Description Threshold Effects of Overdose
limit

Carbon Colorless 5000 Usually

dioxide gas, ppm regarded as a
(C02) Odorless simple
gas
asphyxiant;sy
mptoms
appearing
only when
such high
Concentrationsar
e reached that
there is
insufficient
oxygen to support
life. Symptoms
are those which
precede asphyxia ,
namely, headache,
 Dizziness,
shortness of
breath, muscular
weakness,
drowsiness, and
ringing in the
ears.

Has affinity for

Carbonm Colorle 100
hemoglobin 210
onoxide ss gas, ppm times that of
(CO)
Odorles Oxygen. With
s gas CO-hemoglobin
in the blood
<10%, it rarely
has any
symptoms; 20-
30% causes
shortness of
breathe on
moderate exertion
and slight
headache
30-50% causes
severe headache,
mental
exhaustion and
dizziness,
impairment of
vision and
hearing, and
collapse fainting
on exertion; 50-
56%
 Unconsciousness
results; and 80%
almost immediate
death.

Causes
Sulfur Colorless 5 inflammation and
dioxide gas or ppm irritation
(SO2) liquid conjunctiva.
with Forms sulfurous
pungento acid and oxidises
dor to form
 Sulfuric acid.

Irritates and
Hydroge Colorles 20 asphyxiates.
n sulfide s, ppm Concentrations of
(H2S) flamma 20-150 ppm cause
ble gas eye irritation;
with slightly higher
offensiv concentrations
e odor cause irritation of
upper
 Respiratory tract
and, on long
exposure,
pulmonary
edema.

Causes severe
Sulfuric Colorless 1 mg burns with rapid
acid , oily m-3 destruction of
(H2SO4) liquid tissue,
inflammation
 Of upper
respiratory tract,
and dermatitis.

Causes irritation
Ammoni Extremel 100 of eyes,
a (NH3) y ppm conjunctivitis,
pungent swelling of
colorless eyelids, irritation
gas of mucous
 Membranes of
nose and throat,
coughing,
dysphea, and
vomiting.

A very powerful
Flourine Pale 0.1 caustic irritant;
(F2) yellow ppm causes
gas conjunctivitis,
skin irritation,
 Bone
degeneration,
mottling teeth.

Hydrofl Clear, 3 Extremely

ouric colorless ppm irritating and
acid , corrosive to the
(HF) fuming, skin and mucous
corrosiv membranes.
e, liquid
or gas
Hydroch Colorles 5 Irritates mucous
loric s gas or ppm membranes of
acid, colorless eyes and
HCI fuming respiratory
liquid tract;
concentration >
35 ppm causes
irritation of
throat after
short exposure
Mitigation Measures for
Volcanic Gases
- Some volcanoes continually emit
toxic gases that may be associa-
ted with the deposition of flourine
and other trace elements.
 To prevent worsening of pre-
existing non-communicable
respiratory diseases,
interstitial lung diseases, and
pulmonary vascular diseases by
acid rains, gases, and ash, the
following actions are
recommended.
 Drink fluids to encourage loosening of
secretions and coughing.
 During periods of volcanic pollution, avoid
contact with people who have colds.
 Avoid smoking and inhaling second-hand as
smoke will only add to breathing problems.
 Avoid over exertion. If one have to go
outdoors, limit physical activities.
 In heavy pollution, stay indoors, close
windows and doors, turn on air conditioners
or purifier.
 Use gas masks. If one have to work outdoors,
one can greatly reduce exposure to the sulfur
compounds and vog by using a gas mask.
 Keep medication on hand and readily
available. It is still wiser to avoid or leave
areas that are reasonably likely to be impacted
by vog in the near future.
 If any respiratory symptoms should develop,
contact a doctor as soon as possible.
 Acid rain landing on roofs causes increased
acidity of water in catchment tanks. A simple
trick is to add baking soda to the water in the
tank to neutralized acidity.