Medical Physics

Abdullahi Mohamed Isak

M.Sc. In Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Necmettin Erbakan University (NEÜ)

B.Sc. In Electrical Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering major in Power

Jamhuriya University of Science and Technology (JUST)

Email: engabdalla2018@gmail.com | Abdullahi.mohamed9@just.edu.so

Medical Physics- Engr Abdullahi Mohamed Isak

 Chapter 2

Medical Physics- Engr Abdullahi Mohamed Isak

Friction
• If we examine the surface of any object, we observe that it is irregular. It has protrusions
and valleys. Even surfaces that appear smooth to the eye show such irregularities under
microscopic examination.
• When two surfaces are in contact, their irregularities intermesh, and as a result there is a
resistance to the sliding or moving of one surface on the other. This resistance is called
friction. If one surface is to be moved with respect to another, a force has to be applied to
overcome friction.
• Consider a block resting on a surface as shown in Fig. 2.1. If we apply a force F to the
block, it will tend to move. But the intermeshing of surfaces produces a frictional reaction
force Ff that opposes motion.

Medical Physics- Engr Abdullahi Mohamed Isak

Friction
• In order to move the object along the surface, the applied force must overcome the
frictional force.
• The magnitude of the frictional force depends on the nature of the surfaces; clearly, the
rougher the surfaces, the greater is the frictional force.
• The frictional property of surfaces is represented by the coefficient of friction μ. The
magnitude of the frictional force depends also on the force Fn perpendicular to the
surfaces that presses the surfaces together. The force Fn includes the weight W of the
block (W =mg) plus any other force perpendicular to the surface.
• The frictional force Ff is given by
• Ff = μFn
• Distinction has to be made between
• the frictional force that acts on moving object iscalled the kinetic frictional force and
• the frictional force that acts on the object when it is stationary is called static friction

Medical Physics- Engr Abdullahi Mohamed Isak

Friction
• Coefficients of static and kinetic friction between some surfaces are shown in Table 2.1.
As is evident, the coefficient of static friction for two given surfaces is somewhat larger
than the coefficient of kinetic friction.

Medical Physics- Engr Abdullahi Mohamed Isak

Friction
• We have illustrated the concept of friction with surfaces sliding along each other, but
frictional forces are encountered also in rolling (rolling friction) and in fluid flows
(viscous friction). Rolling motion is not encountered in living systems, but viscous
friction plays an important role in the flow of blood and other biological fluids.
• Friction is everywhere around us. It is both a nuisance and an indispensable factor in the
ability of animals to move. Without friction an object that is pushed into motion would
continue to move forever (Newton’s first law). The slightest force would send us into
eternal motion. It is the frictional force that dissipates kinetic energy into heat and
eventually stops the object.
• Without friction we could not walk; nor could we balance on an inclined plane. In both
cases, friction provides the necessary reaction force. Friction also produces undesirable
wear and tear and destructive heating of contact surfaces.
• Both nature and engineers attempt to maximize friction where it is necessary and
minimize it where it is destructive. Friction is greatly reduced by introducing a fluid such
as oil at the interface of two surfaces. The fluid fills the irregularities and therefore
smooths out the surfaces.

Medical Physics- Engr Abdullahi Mohamed Isak

Friction
• A natural example of such lubrication occurs in the joints of animals, which are lubricated
by a fluid called the synovial fluid.
• This lubricant reduces the coefficient of friction by about a factor of 100.
• As is evident from Table 2.1, nature provides very efficient joint lubrication.
• The coefficient of friction here is significantly lower than for steel on ice.
• We will illustrate the effects of friction with a few examples.

Medical Physics- Engr Abdullahi Mohamed Isak

STANDING AT AN INCLINE
• Referring to Fig. 2.2, let us calculate the angle of incline
θ of an oak board on which a person of weight W can
stand without sliding down. Assume that she is wearing
leather-soled shoes and that she is standing in a vertical
position as shown in the figure.
• The force Fn normal to the inclined surface is
Fn = Wcosθ
• The static frictional force Ff is
Ff = μFn = μsWcosθ = 0.6Wcosθ
• The force parallel to the surface Fp, which tends to
cause the sliding, is
Fp = Wsinθ FIGURE 2.2 Standing on an incline.

Medical Physics- Engr Abdullahi Mohamed Isak

STANDING AT AN INCLINE
• The person will slide when the force Fp is greater
than the frictional force Ff ; that is,
• Fp > Ff
• At the onset of sliding, these two forces are just
equal; therefore,
Ff = Fp
0.6Wcosθ = Wsinθ or

Therefore θ = 31°. FIGURE 2.2 Standing on an incline.

Medical Physics- Engr Abdullahi Mohamed Isak

FRICTION AT THE HIP JOINT
• We have shown in Chapter 1 that the forces acting on the joints are very large. When the
joints are in motion, these large forces produce frictional wear, which could be damaging
unless the joints are well lubricated.
• Frictional wear at the joints is greatly reduced by a smooth cartilage coating at the contact
ends of the bone and by synovial fluid which lubricates the contact areas.
• We will now examine the effect of lubrication on the hip joint in a person. When a person
walks, the full weight of the body rests on one leg through most of each step. Because the
center of gravity is not directly above the joint, the force on the joint is greater than the
weight.
• Depending on the speed of walking, this force is about 2.4 times the weight.
• In each step, the joint rotates through about 60°. Since the radius of the joint is about 3cm,
the joint slides about 3cm inside the socket during each step. The frictional force on the
joint is
• Ff = 2.4Wμ

Medical Physics- Engr Abdullahi Mohamed Isak

FRICTION AT THE HIP JOINT
• Thus, the work expended during each step is
• Work = Ff distance = 2.4Wμ(3cm) = 7.2μW erg
• If the joint were not lubricated, the coefficient of friction (μ) would be about 0.3. Under
these conditions, the work expended would be
• Work = 2.16 W erg
• This is a large amount of work to expend on each step. It is equivalent to lifting the full
weight of the person 2.16cm. Furthermore, this work would be dissipated into heat
energy, which would destroy the joint.
• As it is, the joint is well lubricated, and the coefficient of friction is only 0.003. Therefore,
the work expended in counteracting friction and the resultant heating of the joint are
negligible.
• However, as we age, the joint cartilage begins to wear, efficiency of lubrication decreases,
and the joints may become seriously damaged. Studies indicate that by the age of 70
about two-thirds of people have knee joint problems and about one-third have hip
problems.
Medical Physics- Engr Abdullahi Mohamed Isak
SPINE FIN OF A CATFISH
Dorsal spine
• Although in most cases good lubrication of bone-
contact surfaces is essential, there are a few cases in
nature where bone contacts are purposely
unlubricated to increase friction. The catfish has
such a joint connecting its dorsal spine fin to the
rest of its skeleton (Fig. 2.3).
• Normally the fin is folded flat against the body, but
when the fish is attacked, the appropriate muscles
pull the bone of the fin into a space provided in the
underlying skeleton.
• In order to remove the fin, a force must be applied
in a predominantly vertical direction with respect to
the underlying skeleton. The erect sharp fin
discourages predators from eating the catfish.

FIGURE 2.3 (A) Catfish. (B) Simplified

representation of the spine in the catfish.
Medical Physics- Engr Abdullahi Mohamed Isak
BIOTRIBOLOGY
• Tribology is a field of engineering and physics that studies friction. Traditionally, most of
the studies in this field focused on reducing friction in industrial equipment such as
electric motors, generators, gears, and internal combustion engines.
• More recently, during the past 20 years or so, the field has expanded to study friction in as
it pertains to biology and medicine. This new subarea of tribology has been named
“biotribology.”
• Experiments in biotribology present problems of reproducibility and control principally,
because the properties of a given biological material, such as skin or mucus for example,
change as a function of many variables such as the prevailing temperature, humidity, and
time of day.
• The relevant materials also show wide variability from person to person. The properties of
human skin that covers 1.5 to 2 m2 of the body are significantly different at the various
regions on the body and depend significantly on the age of the individual.

Medical Physics- Engr Abdullahi Mohamed Isak

BIOTRIBOLOGY
• There are three active areas of biotribology.
1. Oral Biotribology
2. Hair Biotribology
3. Biotribology of Textiles

• 1. Oral Biotribology
• The principal components of the oral cavity (mouth) are teeth, tongue, and saliva. The
composition of saliva and its role in the chemistry and tribology of the mouth are now
well understood. Most of the saliva is produced by three pairs of salivary glands. Two of
the glands are located at either side of the mouth below the jaw bone. The third pair of
glands is located between the ear and the jaw. In addition, several smaller glands,
distributed throughout the mouth, contribute to the flow of saliva.
• Human saliva consists of about 99% water and a highly complex mixture of proteins and
ions that give the saliva its remarkable properties necessary for the proper functioning of
the oral system.
Medical Physics- Engr Abdullahi Mohamed Isak
BIOTRIBOLOGY
1. Oral Biotribology
• Some of the proteins in saliva adhere strongly both to teeth and to soft tissue in the oral
cavity. These adhered molecules form a substrate for the formation of a coating of saliva
on oral surfaces that provides an excellent lubricant for these surfaces.
• The coefficient of friction of such a coated surface is about 0.02, similar to that of
synovial fluid.
• The low friction coating protects the teeth from excessive wear and also protects soft
tissue from being bruised and damaged by hard foods. Another role of saliva is in the
processing of food. In the process of chewing, the saliva is mixed with the food making
the mixture more slippery promoting easy sliding down the esophagus into the stomach. A
simple calculation shows that the thickness of the saliva layer on the oral surfaces is
approximately 0.1 mm.

Medical Physics- Engr Abdullahi Mohamed Isak

BIOTRIBOLOGY
1. Oral Biotribology
• In addition to its tribological properties, saliva is also a mild antiseptic containing a range
of compounds that have antibacterial and antiviral properties. Some fraction of these
molecules also promotes blood clotting. This protective and healing nature of saliva is
probably why wounded animals, including humans, respond instinctively to an injury by
licking the wound.
• These attributes of saliva are likely the reason for the observation that in most cases
wounds in the mouth heal faster than wounds on other parts of the body.
• Licking of wounds is not universally recommended. Licking may introduce into the
wound bacteria and viruses that are immune to the disinfectant properties of the saliva.

Medical Physics- Engr Abdullahi Mohamed Isak

BIOTRIBOLOGY
2. Hair Biotribology
• Frictional forces act between hair fibers and between hair and objects in contact with hair
such as a comb. In large measure, hair friction determines the esthetic properties of hair.
Too much friction and the hair fibers stick together giving the hair a stringy appearance.
Not enough friction makes styling difficult giving hair an unruly appearance. Millions of
dollars annually are spent by the hairproducts industry to study frictional properties of
hair, and how it is affected by products such as shampoo, hair conditioner, and hair spray.
• Measurement of hair friction coefficient is difficult but techniques have been developed to
perform such measurements. The effect on hair friction of environmental conditions such
as natural hair oil, sweat, dirt, hair dyes has been measured. These factors all tend to
increase friction. Shampoos and hair conditioners are formulated to yield optimum hair
properties as envisioned by the manufacturer.

Medical Physics- Engr Abdullahi Mohamed Isak

BIOTRIBOLOGY
3. Biotribology of Textiles
• Friction is obviously present in areas of contact between skin and textiles. Under most
conditions, such frictional contact does not cause problems. However, in some cases,
repeated relative motion subject to friction can damage the skin. Most people have
experienced an occasional blister, often on the heel or sole of the foot caused by motion
between the skin and an ill-fitting shoe-sock combination. The coefficient of friction
increases when the skin and textile are wet, making skin damage more likely.
• A simple blister is relatively easy to treat by improving the shoe-sock fit and cushioning
the blister with padding. Bedsores (also called decubitus) are a much more serious
condition found mostly in patients who require long periods of bed rest. They are caused
by the pressure and friction at the areas of contact between the skin and the resting
surface.
• Pressure due to body weight reduces blood flow to the contact area, increasing the risk of
serious ulceration and infection. Decubitus may also be a problem for people confined to
wheel chairs who like wise remain in a fixed pressure bearing position for prolonged
periods of time.
Medical Physics- Engr Abdullahi Mohamed Isak
BIOTRIBOLOGY
3. Biotribology of Textiles
 Several research groups are working on the development of new textiles for bedsheets and
other applications involving skin contact that would reduce the friction on the skin of
patients at risk of decubitus.
 Initially five qualities are sought.
 1. The material should readily wick away moisture so that the area of contact be kept
as dry as possible.
 2. While covering the same overall area the material should present a smaller
microscopic contact area. This can be achieved by increasing the free interfacial
volume.
 3. Reducing the penetration of the textile surface into the skin.
 4. Making the fibers of the material more elastic resulting in reduced abrasiveness.
 5. Reducing pressure on specific areas of the body. In trial tests, several new materials
have yielded promising improvements.

Medical Physics- Engr Abdullahi Mohamed Isak