RDTV201 Presentation1

A SHORT HISTORY OF
TELEVISION
A SHORT HISTORY OF TELEVISION
 Communication is an essential part of being human.
We live to express ourselves, especially to each other.
 We have always found ways to send messages to
each other.
 Point-to-point communication refers to one signal
sent to one receiver.
 Mass communication is sending one message to
many different receivers.
Electronic media is important because:
 We spend so much time with it.

 It helps create and support icons of culture.
 It provides shared experiences.
 It shapes our language, our values, our political,
social and religious beliefs, our fashion sense and our
lifestyle.
WHAT IS TELEVISION
 Television is a telecommunication medium for

transmitting and receiving moving images that can be
monochrome (black and white) or colored with or
without sound.
 The etymology of the word has a mixed Latin and

Greek origin, meaning “far sight”: Greek tele, Latin
visio.
 Television had been in development since the 20’s

and there were experimental broadcasts in the 30’s.
TV was introduced to the public at the 1939 New
York World’s Fair, but development stalled during
WWII. David Sarnoff, the head of RCA, and William
Paley, the head of CBS, became instrumental in the
growth of the television industry.
The Fifties
 The fifties became the golden age of television. In the

fifties, more TV sets (70 million) were sold than
children born (40 million).
 Early programming included news, sports, game

shows, sitcoms, children’s programming, variety
shows and dramas. Most programming was live.
Videotape was also introduced late in the decade.
The Eighties
Broadcasting using satellite technology gave news

organizations the ability to go “live” from almost
anywhere in the world.
Cable television began to dramatically change the

landscape of the industry. No longer just a “relay”
service, cable operators began to offer alternative
programming.
The Eighties
 Remote controls and VCRs changed the way people

watched television.
 Deregulation became the mode of operation.
 Primetime soap operas riveted large audiences and
Bill Cosby single-handedly revived the sitcom genre.
The Nineties
 The switch from analog to digital transmission begins

in earnest. High-definition television begins a slow,
but steady growth in programming.
 News programming became a constant presence and
programming source. Entertainment programmers
continued to push the envelope.
The 21st Century
 Digital television (“high def”) becomes more

prevalent.
 Reality programming becomes TV's favorite
programming genre.
 TV programming becomes available through the
internet, Ipods, cell phones, etc.
«Television is far more than a box of

electronic circuity that delivers news updates
and dramatic programming. Television has
become our culture» Neil Postman
 Neil Postman (March 8, 1931 – October 5, 2003) was an

American author, educator, media theorist and cultural critic,
who is best known for his seventeen books, including
Amusing Ourselves to Death (1985), Conscientious
Objections (1988), Technopoly: The Surrender of Culture to
Technology (1992), The Disappearance of Childhood (1994)
and The End of Education: Redefining the Value of School
(1995).
 For more than forty years, he was associated with New York
University.
 Mass media is communication—whether written,
broadcast, or spoken—that reaches a large audience. This
includes television, radio, advertising, movies, the
Internet, newspapers, magazines, and so forth.
 Mass media is a significant force in modern culture.
Sociologists refer to this as a mediated culture where
media reflects and creates the culture. Communities and
individuals are bombarded constantly with messages
from a multitude of sources including TV, billboards,
and magazines, to name a few.
 These messages promote not only products, but moods,
attitudes, and a sense of what is and is not important.
Mass media makes possible the concept of celebrity:
without the ability of movies, magazines, and news
media to reach across thousands of miles, people could
not become famous.
 In fact, only political and business leaders, as well as the
few notorious outlaws, were famous in the past. Only in
recent times have actors, singers, and other social elites
become celebrities or “stars.”
 The current level of media saturation has not always
existed. As recently as the 1960s and 1970s, television,
for example, consisted of primarily three networks,
public broadcasting, and a few local independent
stations. These channels aimed their programming
primarily at two‐parent, middle‐class families. Even so,
some middle‐class households did not even own a
television. Today, one can find a television in the
poorest of homes, and multiple TVs in most middle‐
class homes.
 Not only has availability increased, but programming is
increasingly diverse with shows aimed to please all ages,
incomes, backgrounds, and attitudes. This widespread
availability and exposure makes television the primary
focus of most mass‐media discussions.
 More recently, the Internet has increased its role
exponentially as more businesses and households “sign
on.” Although TV and the Internet have dominated the
mass media, movies and magazines play a powerful role
in culture, as do other forms of media.
 What role does mass media play?
Liberal approaches the foundation of which was laid by the

works of thinkers such as Adam Smith, David Ricardo and
Thomas Robert Malthus extol democracy and human
rights while they reject the repressive structure of the state
and its intervention in the commercial sphere. These
approaches which define human beings as rational beings
assume that individuals have the capacity and power to be
able to make the choice which fits best to their interests.
 What role does mass media play?
The liberal approach which is based on the principle

“let them do, let them pass” has its impact on
various fields ranging from economics, in particular,
to politics, religion, culture and science. Rights and
freedoms such as freedom of thought and
expression, minority rights, pluralism and equality
are essential principles of liberal tradition.
What role does mass media play?
One of the main arguments of this approach is that

media serves as a bridge for the citizens to enjoy the
rights and freedoms such as freedom of expression,
right to information etc. In addition, it has been
assumed that media increases the level of awareness
and political participation of citizens with its
capacity to provide political information.
According to the liberal mass communication theory

every individual should express their thoughts freely
and they should be able to print and distribute them.
In this regard, the mainstream media theory defines
media as a market of free thought and emphasizes the
importance of the freedom of movement principle.
Within the scope of liberal approaches media has been
accepted as one of the essential elements of democracy.
The approaches claim that the basic function of media is
to act as a public monitoring agent that monitors the
state and they generally define its role of a public
monitoring agent as disclosing the malpractices in
using state authority. The mainstream liberal approach
positions media as the fourth power following
executive, legislative and judicial powers.
Liberal, pluralist tradition has listed the duties of
media which it defines as a market of free thought as
informing people about different points of view;
keeping the channels of communication between the
ruling class, the ruled and various groups of society
open; serving as a neutral zone in the formation of
public opinion.
Critical approaches which cover a quite large field of
research assume that all social relations and
communication relations are power relations at the
same time; and these relations take the form of
domination (pressure, tyranny, commanding) in a
complex social system.
Critical approaches describe mass communication tools
as power and repression tools; they refuse to regard
them valuable and reliable and analysis the effects
caused by the development of these new tools of cultural
production and distribution.
Within the framework of critical approaches it was
claimed that media was concentrated in the hands of
the government, elites or property owners and it was
pointed out that the content of media represented and
promoted the dominance of these classes.
In other words, it has been argued that as media gets
its financial support from these groups, it is
dependent on the political and economic power
holders and guided by them.
Studies of researchers who have adopted critical

approaches are mostly based on ideas of Karl Marx
and generally involve Marxist criticism of capitalist
societies. Marxist approach defines economic relations
and ways of production as infrastructure and fields
such as law, art, philosophy etc. as superstructure.
Marks and Engels focused on the ideological effect

of media and they stated that ideas of the dominant
class had always been dominant at all times assuming
that those who own physical means of production
also have the power to keep intellectual means of
production under control.
The fundamental thesis of Marxism is that the

infrastructure determines the superstructure;
economic relations and ways of production in a
society shape the social, political and intellectual life
of that society.
Critical approaches cover a large area of study

including critical theories of Frankfurt School,
cultural studies and political economy approach.
thedominant class which owns physical means of

production is able to control all media organizations
and production processes due to its ownership of
media.
Adorno and Horkheimer. Philosophers from
Frankfurt School came up with the concept of ‘culture
industry’ and accepted that cultural property is
produced through an industrial process as a
commodity.
Adorno and Horkheimer argued that tools of mass

communication dominate masses with a
monopolistic capitalist approach.
Herbert Marcuse, who was one of the significant

philosophers of Frankfurt School with the works he
made in 1960s in particular contributed to the critical
theory by developing the concept of “one dimensional
man”.
technology and science had begun to shape the

world and even though this situation created a
picture of rationality, it was actually a form of
organization that enslaved individuals. One of the
fundamental hypotheses of this approach which
describes media as a significant force is that tools of
mass communication are used to shape mass
awareness.
Jürgen Habermas described public sphere as an area of
mediation which enables a public discussion and where ideas
are exchanged between the state and the society; enlightened
ideas and opinions come together.
public interest gradually lost its priority in a capitalist social
order and commercial gain was set as the main target.
public opinion which constitutes the opinions owned and
believed by the majority of public is not shaped through
democratic discussions but through media.
Another approach within the scope of critical theories

is cultural studies. The approach which involves
studies carried out in the Birmingham Center for
Contemporary Cultural Studies is based on Neo-
Marksist social view. This approach was formed by the
works of the philosophers such as Richard Hoggart,
Raymond Williams and E.P. Thompson.
In the studies made with the employment of cultural studies

approach it was analyzed how meaning is constructed, how
it is reproduced in certain narrative forms, how it is
constantly negotiated and deconstructed through
everyday life practices.
Raymond Williams’ theorization of culture “life as a
whole” was adopted and it was rejected to put the sphere of
culture through dichotomies such as high-low or popular-
elite.
Within the scope of this approach culture was

embedded in a social production and reproduction
theory. The effect of cultural forms on the continuity of
social guidance or people’s developing an attitude and
resistance against such guidance was tried to be
determined. In order to determine this special focus was
given on the analysis of cultural texts.
In the tradition of cultural studies, it was argued that
meaning can change and it depends on the contexts
offered by the whole of the narrative.
This recognition created a strong opposition against
the simple impact model by declaring the creativity
of the audiences. Cultural studies see members of the
audience as active subjects struggling to make their
positions more meaningful rather than seeing them
as passive objects of a dominant production system.
This approach clearly contradicts with the long

standing argument that mass communication tools
function ideologically to maintain and support the
existing relations of domination. Cultural studies
surpassed the limits of passive audience approach of
Frankfurt School with the idea of active audience who
create their own meanings and determine what is
popular.
Another approach within the critical tradition which

adopted the neo-Marxist tradition is political
economy. Political economists carried out their studies
employing the Marxist infrastructure-superstructure
metaphor and accepted that ideology was a
superstructure determined by economic
infrastructure.
Political economy of communication tries to explain
mass communication by examining the economic and
political formations regarding mass communication;
the relations of these formations with national and
international economic and political structures;
historical development of these formations; their
situation in a certain time and place; production and
production relations of communication mediated by
mass communication technologies; mutual bonds in
these relations.
According to the political economy approach,
ownership of media affects and determines the
decisions and content of media. For Murdock and
Golding, media content has become a cultural
commodity of capitalist system.
The duty of media has been defined by political
economists as legitimizing the interest of the class
which is economically powerful and has the
ownership of media by creating false consciousness.
With this regard, it was pointed that no such thing as
independence of media could exist and media would
reflect the ideology of the people, groups or
organizations that it got financial support.
Studies made with political economy approach
included the ones which were carried out to determine
the effects of culture imperialism and new sense of
colonialism on international media corporations.
Chomsky argued that by means of effective strategies

to manufacture consent and propaganda models,
transformations which could not have made even by
coercive force in totalitarian regimes achieved by
using the effective power of consent manufacturing
engineering. Chomsky also pointed out that filters of
property and advertisement made media dependent
on economic power.
All those criticisms against liberal media theory

basically criticize the current situation of the
relations between media and political and economic
power holders. They draw attention to the fact that
media serves the purpose of legitimizing the ideas of
dominant political power with the acknowledgment
of the effects of media on public opinion.
Effects of Media on Public ?
Powerful Effects Era
In the first stage which was between 1900 and 1940, it
was widely believed that mass communication tools had
an extraordinary power to shape the thoughts, ideas
and beliefs of people, to change their life styles, to
mold their behavior and opinions, to make behavioral
change and to impose the dominant political systems.
Therefore, in this era mass communication tools were
effectively used for propaganda purposes.
In this era when pioneering studies were made in the field
of communication, the work of political scientist Harold D.
Lasswell titled “Propaganda Techniques in the World
War” published in 1927 is of significant importance. In his
study Lasswell defined propaganda as the only tool that
can ensure the participation of masses. Lasswell, who
described media as tools that enable the circulation of
effective signs, stated that it was designed as an unlimited
force.
In this era when the linear understanding of
communication as the transfer of a message from the
sender to the recipient was prevalent, the “Magic Bullet”
and “Hypodermic Needle” theories were developed on the
effects of mass communication tools.
Harold Dwight Laswell, argued that mass communication
tools created a direct and immediate effect on the masses
just like a hypodermic syringe or a magic bullet.
The “Hypodermic Needle” or “Magic Bullet” theory reflects the
dominant approach of the first stage. In the first stage of the
development of mass communication research, media audience was
accepted as characterless targets who blindly follow the
stimulus-response scheme.
Within this period, several studies were made in which the power
of mass communication tools and propaganda were categorically
accepted and media audience was described as defenseless and
passive.
Limited Effects Era
The second stage from 1940 till the beginning of 1962

is called limited effects era. In this stage, scientific
studies were made to redetermine the extent of the
effect that mass communication tools had on the
behavior, attitudes, feelings, opinions and acts of
individuals.
Limited Effects Era
Unlike the previous era the effects of mass communication tools
was analyzed by means of social-psychological-functionalist
approach and these effects were tried to be explained through
differences.
Consequently, it was argued that the effects of mass

communication tools depended on various social facts; it was
hypothesized that the power of mass communication tools took
place within the structure of the existing social relations and
within the framework of the culture and belief system.
Limited Effects Era
The work titled "The People's Choice: How the Voter

Makes Up His Mind in a Presidential Campaign"
published in 1944 by Paul Felix Lazarsfeld, Bernard
Berelson and Hazel Gaudet, who adopted the sociological
approach known as the Colombia School arguing that the
attitudes and choices of individuals were affected by the
people they interact with, is one of the pioneering studies
made in this era.
Limited Effects Era
In this study, Lazarsfeld et al. defined the “Two-step

Flow Theory”. According to this approach many
variables affect the decision making process of the
voters. Individual are affected by variables such as
family, socio-economic status, place of residence,
affiliation to a group, religious commitment and the
level of interest shown in the elections.
Limited Effects Era
Beings constituting the target group are not isolated

beings; each individual belongs to social groups in
which he/she interacts with other individuals. In this
regard, personal relations of an individual were
considered as a significant function in the acceptance
or rejection of a message.
Limited Effects Era
Within the scope of this approach it was argued that

the ones who form the public opinion are people who
have opinions, opinion leaders, in other words, that
use communication tools more frequently than an
average person rather than the part of the society
which is less active.
Limited Effects Era
In this model, it is accepted that the opinion leaders

acquire their information and ideas through mass
communication tools and then they convey them to
the voters. In the “Two-step Flow Model” it is accepted
that interpersonal effects is more powerful than the
effect of mass communication tools.
Limited Effects Era
Another theory arose as a result of the works by
Lazarsfeld, Berelson and Gaudet is the “Reinforcement
Theory”. According to this approach, communication
tools play a reinforcing role rather than changing the
attitudes and behavior of people. The role of media was
limited in changing minds of the voter when making their
voting decisions while they emphasized their effect in
giving information and role of reinforcing.
Limited Effects Era
In the limited effects era, psychological models such

as cognitive inconsistency, balance, selective
perception in particular were widely accepted in the
research carried out. One of these studies contains
Defleur’s three theories titles “individual
differences”, “social categories” and “social cultural
norms”.
Limited Effects Era
Individual differences theory assumes that people
are different from each other and these differences
result from genetics and learning in particular. It was
pointed out that people living in different
environments are exposed to different points of view
and learning and therefore mass communication tools
cannot have same effects on everyone.
Limited Effects Era
The selective attention and perception of individuals
affect the receipt of the message and consequently
messages coming from mass communication tools are
interpreted differently by each individual.
In the social categories theory it was argued that
people having several similar characteristics have
similar customs, similar types of tendencies and
behavior despite the diversity in modern societies.
Limited Effects Era
There are co-operations, groups or social categories

in a society, the factors that set these categories are
listed as age, gender, income level, educational status
and religious belief. People falling under the same
category give similar reactions to similar messages.
Limited Effects Era
In the cultural norms theory it has been assumed that

mass communication tools give selective presentation and
highlight certain themes; common cultural norms regarding
the highlighted themes are constructed among the audience
or such an impression is given; cultural norms are the
primary guides of individual behavior; and therefore mass
communication tools have an indirect effect on behavior.
Return to Powerful Effects Era
In 1960s, the assumption that mass communication

tools only have a limited effect on shaping the public
opinion began to lose its validity with the spreading use
of television. In the third stage, the research on the
effects of mass communication tools aimed at
redetermining the effects of these tools on the society
and culture.
Return to Powerful Effects Era
In this era, the studies carried out employing the system
approach and structural-functionalist approach stood out.
In the “return to powerful effects” era in which the
effects of media on public opinion were redefined
several models were developed. Among these models
the agenda setting model, spiral of silence model,
information gap model, addiction model and uses and
satisfactions model are the most significant ones.
Return to Powerful Effects Era - Agenda Setting Model
(Maxwell E. McCombs and Donald L. Shaw)
The agenda setting model which is one of the

approaches developed regarding the functions and
effects of media involves assumptions regarding the
effect created by media by selecting some issues over
others to cover and by excluding others from the agenda.
(Maxwell E. McCombs and Donald L. Shaw)
McCombs and Shaw evaluated the effects of media on

people in four levels. These are “realization”,
“information”, “attitude formation” and lastly
“behavior/action change”.
Return to Powerful Effects Era - The Spiral of Silence
Model (Elizabeth Noelle Neumann)
One of the main hypotheses of the model is that society
threatens individuals with isolation. Neumann has
argued that the individual who is threatened by the
society with exclusion is obliged to behave as if he/she
has internalized the dominant attitudes, beliefs or
opinions in case of a controversial event in society.
Return to Powerful Effects Era - The Spiral of Silence
Model (Elizabeth Noelle Neumann)
In this regard, it has been accepted that the individual is

in a continuous attempt to be informed about the
attitudes, beliefs and opinions dominant in the society.
Neumann has pointed out that individuals use their
personal observations and media to reach this
information they are looking for.
Return to Powerful Effects Era - Information Gap
Model (Tichenor, Donohue and Olien)
The rapid advancement of technology has led to an

increase in people’s need to get informed about social,
political and economic issues. Especially its critical role
in the proper operation of democracy reinforces the
significance of information. Ensuring information flow
is one of the primary functions of media.
Return to Powerful Effects Era - Information Gap
Model (Tichenor, Donohue and Olien)
Within the scope of this theory, it has been assumed that

those having high socio-economic status get and
internalize the information given through media faster
than the ones with low socio-economic status.
Return to Powerful Effects Era - Information Gap Model
(Tichenor, Donohue and Olien)
Therefore, it has been claimed that media does not close the
information gap between the groups having different socio-
economic statutes; it, on the contrary, enlarges that gap. In
this regard, media not only maintains the existing situation
of class-based inequalities but it also helps these
inequalities multiply. While low classes continue to be poor
in terms of obtaining information, high classes get richer
and richer in that sense.
The first reason for information gap is the difference in
education and communication skills between the ones
having high socio-economic status and the ones having a
low one. The second reason is said to be the differences in
basic knowledge gained before. As other reasons, those
who belong to the high socio-economic class have can
make friends with people who have been exposed to the
news on public affairs
and scientific issues as they have more suitable social

relations for that and they can discuss with them on these
matters. Selective exposure, operation of acceptance and
retention mechanisms and the fact that mass communication
tools are, in nature, intended for the ones having high socio-
economic statutes have been listed among the elements
resulting in information gap.
Return to Powerful Effects Era - Dependency Model
(Ball-Rokeach and DeFleur)
In the dependency model, it has been argued that media
is quite significant for modern societies and individuals
are dependent on these tools for certain social relations.
In the model it has been assumed that as societies get
more complex, the individuals become more and more
dependent on media to access information about the
world more comprehensively and to set their direction.
Return to Powerful Effects Era - Dependency Model
(Ball-Rokeach and DeFleur)
It was accepted that made had effects on individuals

such as attitude formation, developing and spreading
beliefs, declaring and clarifying values, boosting the
morale or demoralization, activation or passivation,
promoting solidarity and doing acts.
Return to Powerful Effects Era - The Uses and
Satisfactions Theory
Various studies made as of 1940s have a significant

place in the development of this model. These studies
have aimed at explaining why people prefer using
different mass communication tools. Especially the
studies of Elihu Katz in which he tried to find the
answer to the question “what do we people do with
media?” led to the birth of this model.
This approach refuses the argument that audience is

passive receivers and puts forward the thesis that
individuals use mass communication tools to satisfy
their needs and demands and have pleasure or
satisfaction.
McQuail, Blumler and Brown listed the main reasons

for using mass communication tools as information,
personal identity, entertainment, integration and social
interaction.
Under the title of Information, the need for finding
information on the events and conditions in the
immediate surroundings, society and the world;
searching for advice, ideas and decision options about
practical issues; satisfying the curiosity and general
interest; learning and self-teaching and gaining sense of
safety thanks to education was mentioned. Under the
title of personal identity, the need to find support for
personal values; find behavior models; to gain insight
into oneself and identification with the valuable other in
communication tools was elaborated on.
Under the title of integration and social interaction, on
the other hand, the need of individuals to gain insight
into the conditions of others; for social empathy; to
identify with others and gain a sense of belongingness;
to find the ground for conversation and social
interaction; to find something to substitute for friends in
real life;
to help the maintenance of social roles and to connect

with the family, friends or society was emphasized.
Under the title of entertainment, the need to detach or
escape from problems; to relax and soften; to gain inner,
cultural or aesthetic pleasure; to spend time, kill time or
have emotional relaxation was discussed.
The uses and satisfactions approach which is based on

the activeness of the audience has become one of the
most effective theoretical foundations in the analysis of
social media tools.
Many researchers have carried out studies in order to

probe on the reason why internet is used, what
satisfactions are gained and the psychological and
behavioral tendencies of internet users. In addition, the
results of the research on social media and conventional
media have been compared in an attempt to reveal the
differences.
As a result of this research, the reasons to use internet

and the satisfactions gained have been summarized as to
include, in general, information (looking for
information, research, social surveillance, following
innovations), entertainment (using free time, spending
time, social escape, detaching from everyday life
tensions, relaxation,
looking for fantasies, sexuality, games, music, video),

social interaction (chatting, friendship, personal
communication, maintaining relations, escaping from
loneliness, gaining status, guidance), economic benefit
(looking for jobs, consumer information processes,
shopping, travel) online transactions and downloads.
REFERENCES
Zettl, H. (2014). Television Production Handbook.
Wadsworth Publishing, ISBN: 978-1285052670
Cury, I. (2017). Directing and Producing for
Television: A Format Approach. Routledge, 5
Edition, ISBN: 978-1138124998
https://sites.google.com/site/evocommune/wired-li
ne/television
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television
McCarthy, Myrtle. History of Television Television,
https://slideplayer.com/slide/10441354/

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A SHORT HISTORY OF

 We spend so much time with it.

 Television is a telecommunication medium for

 The etymology of the word has a mixed Latin and

 Television had been in development since the 20’s

 The fifties became the golden age of television. In the

 Early programming included news, sports, game

Broadcasting using satellite technology gave news

Cable television began to dramatically change the

 Remote controls and VCRs changed the way people

 The switch from analog to digital transmission begins

 Digital television (“high def”) becomes more

«Television is far more than a box of

 Neil Postman (March 8, 1931 – October 5, 2003) was an

Liberal approaches the foundation of which was laid by the

The liberal approach which is based on the principle

One of the main arguments of this approach is that

According to the liberal mass communication theory

Studies of researchers who have adopted critical

Marks and Engels focused on the ideological effect

The fundamental thesis of Marxism is that the

Critical approaches cover a large area of study

thedominant class which owns physical means of

Adorno and Horkheimer argued that tools of mass

Herbert Marcuse, who was one of the significant

technology and science had begun to shape the

Another approach within the scope of critical theories

In the studies made with the employment of cultural studies

Within the scope of this approach culture was

This approach clearly contradicts with the long

Another approach within the critical tradition which

Chomsky argued that by means of effective strategies

All those criticisms against liberal media theory

The second stage from 1940 till the beginning of 1962

Consequently, it was argued that the effects of mass

The work titled "The People's Choice: How the Voter

In this study, Lazarsfeld et al. defined the “Two-step

Beings constituting the target group are not isolated

Within the scope of this approach it was argued that

In this model, it is accepted that the opinion leaders

In the limited effects era, psychological models such

There are co-operations, groups or social categories

In the cultural norms theory it has been assumed that

In 1960s, the assumption that mass communication

The agenda setting model which is one of the

McCombs and Shaw evaluated the effects of media on

In this regard, it has been accepted that the individual is

The rapid advancement of technology has led to an

Within the scope of this theory, it has been assumed that

and scientific issues as they have more suitable social

It was accepted that made had effects on individuals

Various studies made as of 1940s have a significant

This approach refuses the argument that audience is

McQuail, Blumler and Brown listed the main reasons

to help the maintenance of social roles and to connect

The uses and satisfactions approach which is based on

Many researchers have carried out studies in order to

As a result of this research, the reasons to use internet

looking for fantasies, sexuality, games, music, video),

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