THE VISUAL

SYSTEM
 HUMAN EYEBALL/ BULBUS OCCULI

•Globe shaped, Diameter: 24mm

•Divided into anterior and posterior segments.
•Center of anterior curvature of the eyeball is called
anterior pole and the center of posterior curvature is
called posterior pole.
•Line joining both the poles is called optic axis.
•The line joining a point in cornea, little medial to
anterior pole and fovea centralis, situated lateral to
posterior pole is known as visual axis.
•Light rays pass through the visual axis of eyeball.
 ORBITAL CAVITY/ EYE SOCKET

•Bony cavity where eyeball is situated.

•Thick layer of areolar tissue is interposed
between bone and eyeball which act as a cushion
to protect the eyeball from external force.
•Eyeballs are attached to orbital cavity by the
ocular muscles.
 EYE LID

•Protect the eyeball from foreign particles.

•Cut of the light during night.
•Performs reflex actions.
 CONJUNCTIVA

•Thin mucus membrane, which covers the

exposed part of eye.
• Surface of conjunctiva is lubricated by thin film
of tear secreted by lacrimal gland.
 WALL OF THE EYEBALL

Wall of the eyeball is composed of three layers:

A. Outer layer: cornea and sclera

B. Middle layer: choroid, ciliary body and iris
C. Inner layer: retina.
 A. Outer layer/Tunica Externa
Outer layer preserves the shape of the eyeball.

1. Sclera
•Better known as the "white of the eye."
•Sclera is the tough white fibrous outer layer of
eyeball, that covers posterior five sixth of the eye.
•Anteriorly it is continuous with cornea.

2. Cornea
It is the transparent convex anterior portion of the
outer layer of eyeball, which covers the iris and pupil.
 B. Middle Layer/Tunica Media

•Middle layer surrounds the eyeball completely,

except for a small opening in front known as pupil.
•This layer comprises of three structures:
1. Choroid
2. Ciliary body
3. Iris.
1. Choroid

•Thin vascular layer of eyeball situated between

sclera and retina.
•Choroid is composed of rich capillary plexus,
numerous small arteries and veins.
2. Ciliary body

•It is a circular structure that is an extension of

the iris, the colored part of the eye.
• It produces the fluid in the eye called aqueous
humor.
•It also contains the ciliary muscle, which changes
the shape of the lens when your eyes focus on a
near object. This process is called
accommodation.
3. Iris

•Thin colored curtain-like structure of eyeball, located in front of the lens.

•It forms a thin circular diaphragm with a circular opening in the center
called pupil.

Iris is formed by muscles:

(a) Constrictor pupillae: Formed by circular muscle fibers. Contraction of
this muscle causes constriction of pupil.

(b) Dilator pupillae or pupillary : Formed by radial muscle fibers.

Contraction of this muscle causes dilatation of pupil.

•Activities of these muscles increase or decrease the diameter of pupil and

regulate the amount of light entering the eye.
 C. Inner layer/ Tunica Interna/Retina

•The light-sensitive area located at the inner part

of the eye that the lens focuses images upon,
making vision possible.

•The retina is made up of 10 very thin layers.

Within these layers are rods and cones that are
used to detect color.
Layers of retina from outside in:
1. Layer of pigment epithelium
2. Layer of rods and cones
3. External limiting membrane
4. Outer nuclear layer
5. Outer plexiform layer
6. Inner nuclear layer
7. Inner plexiform layer
8. Ganglion cell layer
9. Layer of nerve fibers
10. Internal limiting membrane.
1. Layer of Pigment Epithelium

•The outermost layer situated adjacent to choroid.

•It is a single layer of hexagonal epithelial cells.
•It absorbs light and prevents reflection of light
rays back from retina.
•Epithelial cells store vitamin A (retinol) and
remove the debris from rod cells and cone cells by
phagocytic action
2. Layer of Rods and Cones

• It lies between pigment epithelial layer and

external limiting membrane.
•Receptor cells are arranged in a parallel fashion
and are perpendicular to the inner surface of the
eyeball.

3. External Limiting Membrane

A thin layer, formed by the chief supporting

elements of retina called the Müller fibers.
4. Outer Nuclear Layer

•It is formed by the fibers and granules of rods and

cones.
•Granules of rods and cones contain nucleus. Nuclei of
rods are smaller and round and the nuclei of cones are
larger and oval in shape.

5. Outer Plexiform Layer

It contains reticular meshwork, formed by terminal

fibers of rods and cones and dendrites from bipolar
cells, situated in the inner nuclear layer.
6. Inner Nuclear Layer
It contains small oval-shaped, flattened bipolar
cells.
This layer also contains nuclei of Müller
supporting fibers and some association neurons
called horizontal cells and amacrine cells.

7. Inner Plexiform Layer

•It consists of synapses between dendrites of
ganglionic cells and axons of bipolar cells.
•It also contains processes from amacrine cells.
8. Ganglion Cell Layer
•Multipolar cells are present in this layer. Some
cells are large and are called giant ganglion cells.
Other cells are smaller called midget ganglion
cells.
• Axons from ganglion cells are in the inner surface
of the retina. These axons form the optic nerve.
Dendrites of ganglion cells synapse with axons of
bipolar cells in the inner plexiform layer.
•Retinal blood vessels are also present in this layer.
9. Layer of Nerve Fibers

•It is formed by non-myelinated axons of

ganglionic cells.
•After taking origin, the axons run horizontally to a
short distance. Afterwards, the fibers converge
towards the optic disk and form the optic nerve.
• Neuroglial cells, Müller cells and retinal blood
vessels are also present in this layer.
10. Internal Limiting Membrane

•The innermost layer of retina and it separates

retina from the vitreous body.
•It is a hyaline membrane, formed by the
opposition of expanded ends of Müller fibers.
THE PHOTORECEPTORS
A) Rod cells

•Rod cells are cylindrical structures with a length

of about 40 to 60 μ and a diameter of about 2 μ.
•Each rod is composed of four structures:
1. Outer segment
2. Inner segment
3. Cell body
4. Synaptic terminal.
B) Cone cell

•Cone cell is the visual receptor with length of 35 μ to 40

μ and a diameter of about 5 μ. Generally, the cone cell is
flask shaped.
•Cones in the fovea are long, narrow and almost similar
to rods. Near the periphery of retina, cones are short
and broad.
•Like rods, cones are also formed by four parts:
1. Outer segment
2. Inner segment
3. Cell body
4. Synaptic terminal.
 FUNDUS OCULI

The posterior part of interior eyeball.

Composed of:
1. Optic disk
2. Macula lutea with fovea centralis.
 OPTIC DISK – BLIND SPOT

•It is a pale disk, situated near the center of the

posterior wall of eyeball.
•It is also called optic papilla.
•It is formed by the convergence of axons from
ganglion cells, while forming the optic nerve.
•Optic disk contains all the layers of retina, except
rods and cones. Because of this, the optic disk is
known as blind spot.
 MACULA LUTEA

•It is a small yellowish area, situated a little lateral to

the optic disk in retina.
•It is also called yellow spot.
•Macula lutea has fovea centralis in its center.

Fovea Centralis
•The minute depression in the center of macula
lutea.
•Fovea is the region of most acute vision because it
contains only cones.
 INTRAOCULAR FLUID

Intraocular fluid (fluid in eyeball) is responsible for

the maintenance of shape of the eyeball.

Intraocular fluid is of two types:

1. Vitreous humor
2. Aqueous humor.
VITREOUS HUMOR
•The viscous fluid present behind lens, in the
space between lens and retina.

•It is a highly viscous and gelatinous substance

that helps to maintain the shape of eyeball.

„
AQUEOUS HUMOR
•It is a thin fluid present in front of retina.
•It fills the space between lens and cornea.
• Maintains the shape of eyeball
•Maintains the intraocular pressure
•Provides nutrients, oxygen and electrolytes to a
vascular structures such as lens and cornea
•Removes the metabolic end products from lens
and cornea.
 LENS
•Lens of the eyeball is crystalline in nature. It is
situated behind the pupil.
•It is a biconvex, transparent and elastic structure.
•It is avascular and receives its nutrition mainly
from the aqueous humor.
•Lens refracts light rays and helps to focus the
image of the objects on retina.
•Lens is supported by the suspensory ligaments,
which are attached with ciliary bodies.
THE VISUAL PATHWAY
•The visual pathway is defined as all the
anatomical structures that are responsible for the
conversion of light energy into electrical energy in
the form of action potentials that are analyzed by
the brain.

•The actual pathway begins at the retina and it

includes several components like optic nerves,
optic chiasm, optic tracts, lateral geniculate body,
optic radiation, visual cortex, and its cortical
projections.
Optic nerve/ 1st order neuron/ bipolar cells of
optic nerve- neural connection from retina to the
optic chiasma of the brain stem.

Optic tract/ 2nd order neuron/ multipolar cells

of the optic tract- neural connection from
brainstem to the thalamus.

Multipolar cells of optic radiation/ 3rd order

neuron: neural connection from the thalamus to
the visual cortex of the brain.
 Chemistry of Vision

•Photosensitive pigments present in rods and cones

are concerned with chemical basis of visual
process.

•Chemical reactions involved in these pigments lead

to the development of electrical activity in retina
and generation of impulses (action potentials),
which are transmitted through optic nerve.
 RHODOPSIN

•Rhodopsin or visual purple is the photosensitive pigment

of rod cells. It is made up of Scotopsin and Retinal.

•Retinal is the aldehyde of vitamin A or retinol. It is

derived from carotinoid substances like β-carotene
present in carrots.

•When rhodopsin absorbs the light that falls on retina, it

is split into retinine and the protein called opsin through
various intermediate photochemical reactions.
 PHOTOSENSITIVE PIGMENTS IN CONES

•Photosensitive pigment in cone cells is of three types,

namely porphyropsin, iodopsin and cyanopsin. Only one
of these pigments is present in each cone.

•Protein in cone pigment is called photopsin, which is

different from scotopsin, the protein part of rhodopsin.

•Each type of cone pigment is sensitive to a particular

light and the maximum response is shown at a particular
light and wave-length.
 PHOTOTRANSDUCTION

•Visual or phototransduction is the process by which light energy is

converted into receptor potential in visual receptors.

•It is the process by which a photon of light is changed to an electrical

signal , occurs in the photoreceptors. 

•Visual pigments in the photoreceptor outer segment absorb light,

initiating the process of vision. A series of biochemical changes follow and
the cell hyperpolarizes, which starts an electrical current flow through the
retina. The signal passes to bipolar and horizontal cells, some
organization and processing occurs, with more organization and
processing occurring as the signal is transferred to amacrine and ganglion
cells. Once a ganglion cell is activated, its axon carries the message to the
brain.
 Light adaptation and dark adaptation
Light Adaptation: When you emerge from dark surroundings (say, a
tunnel) into the sunshine, light adaptation occurs—your visual system
adjusts in seconds to the brighter environment by decreasing its
sensitivity

Dark adaptation: when you enter a darkened room such as a theater,

your visual system undergoes dark adaptation—its sensitivity
increases slowly over many minutes.

Purkinje shift: visual phenomenon in which colors appear to change

with the level of illumination. A rose, for example, may appear bright
red and its leaves bright green at the beginning of twilight, then
gradually change to a black flower with light gray leaves as the level of
daylight declines.
 AFTERIMAGE
•An afterimage is a type of optical illusion in which an image continues to
appear briefly even after exposure to the actual image has ended.
•Two types:
1. In a positive afterimage, the colors of the original image are
maintained. Essentially, the afterimage looks the same as the original
image. You can experience a positive afterimage yourself by staring at
a very brightly lit scene for a period of time and then closing your
eyes.

2. In a negative afterimage, the colors you see are inverted from the
original image. For example, if you stare for a long time at a red
image, you will see a green afterimage. The appearance of negative
afterimages can be explained by the opponent-process theory of
color vision.
THEORIES OF COLOR VISION
 1. Trichromatic Theory
•The trichromatic theory of color vision holds that the human eye has three
types of receptors with differing sensitivities to different light wavelengths.

•Any three colors that are appropriately spaced out in the visible spectrum
can serve as primary colors, although red, green, and blue are usually used.

•First proposed by Thomas Young in 1802 later modified by Herman Von

Helmholtz in 1852 by 'color match experiment'

Drawback:
Trichromatic theory cannot account for the appearance of complementary
afterimages.
 2. Opponent-Process Theory:
•The theory suggests that we possess six different types of neurons, each of
which is either stimulated or inhibited by red, green, blue, yellow, black, or
white.

•Idea first suggested by Edwald Hering in 1874.

•The opponent process theory of color vision holds that color perception
depends on receptors that make antagonistic responses to three pairs of
colors.

•The three pairs of opponent colors he posited were: red-green, yellow-

blue, and black-white.

•It is successful in explaining the phenomenon of complementary

afterimage.
VISUAL DEFECTS
 Myopia/Nearsightedness
•The visual defect mainly caused by the eye being "too
long", meaning the distance between the cornea and the
retina is too great.
•In such cases, the image forms just in front of the retina,
so a myopic person has trouble seeing things far away, but
not close up.
•Myopia can be corrected by means of a divergent lens, i.e.
a lens that is thinner in the center and thicker at the edges.
•This lens, also called a negative or concave lens, is
designed to refocus the image on the retina and restore
clear distance vision.
 Astigmatism

• It is caused by "incorrect curvature of the cornea", i.e. the

cornea is slightly oval in shape instead of being spherical.
•People who have astigmatism have imprecise near and far
vision; their peripheral vision is unclear and they cannot
clearly distinguish certain shapes and details or see
contrasts clearly between horizontal, vertical or oblique
lines.
•Astigmatism is corrected by means of a toric lens (curved
and of varying thickness at the edge).
•This lens is designed to compensate the defect of the
cornea and correct the axis of the astigmatism.
 Presbyopia

•Presbyopia is not a visual defect but a natural change in

vision which affects everyone.
•Over time, the crystalline lens loses some of its suppleness
and therefore its ability to change shape and focus.
•The effects of this change are generally felt around the age
of 40. Like a badly adjusted camera, the eye no longer
focuses the image correctly.
•Progressive lenses are the optimum solution for
presbyopia. They are designed to restore clear and
accurate vision at all distances, without needing to
constantly change glasses.
 Hyperopia/Farsightedness

•A vision condition in which nearby objects are

blurry.
•People with hyperopia must squint to see nearby
objects. Reading, writing, computer work or
drawing for long periods of time may cause eye
strain and headache.
•Treatment options include glasses, contact lenses
and surgery such as LASIK.
 Cataract

•Clouding of the normally clear lens of the eye.

•Most cataracts develop slowly over the course of
years.
•The main symptom is blurry vision.
•Having cataracts can be like looking through a
cloudy window.
•When a cataract interferes with someone's usual
activities, the cloudy lens can be replaced with a
clear, artificial lens. This is generally a safe,
outpatient procedure.
 Colour Blindness

•A reduced ability to distinguish between certain

colours.
•The condition is often inherited. Other causes
include certain eye diseases and medication.
•More men than women are affected.
•Colour blindness usually involves the inability to
distinguish between shades of red and green.
•There is no treatment for inherited colour
blindness. If colour blindness is caused by another
condition, treating the underlying cause can help.
 Night blindness/Nyctalopia

•The condition characterized by an abnormal

inability to see in dim light or at night, typically
caused by vitamin A deficiency.
•An insufficient amount of vitamin A in the body
affects the production of rhodopsin, the necessary
pigment for night vision.
•Night blindness is usually one of the first signs of
a vitamin A deficiency.
 VISUAL DEFECTS METHOD OF CORRECTION
• Myopia • Divergent lens
• Astigmatism • Toric lens
• Presbyopia • Progressive lens
• Hyperopia • Glasses, contact lens, LASIK
surgery
• Cataract • Artificial lens
• Color Blindness • -
• Night Blindness • Vitamin A intake
Thank you…….