UNIT 9

Research Methods in
Sociology

PRESENTED BY NITA JOSHI

 Social Research
Research is an academic engagement to reveal the truth hidden in society. It is carried
out to explore the root causes of the problems that help in curing for sustainable
solutions. It is carried out through systematized efforts. Researcher does explore the
social realities or hidden facts by deploying appropriate tools and techniques. In order
to familiarize with social problems as the social issues or problems sociological
research is carried out.
In order to get masters degree students do conduct the small scale research for his
partial fulfillment.M.Phil and PhD degree research scholars do conduct something
academic research and dig out new social reality through academic scholarship.
Researcher enters into research areas and selects the topic which is researchable. His
own empirical context and reviewed literature helps him to select the research
issue.People,program,problems and phenomena(p4) are supportive wings for
selecting the research topic.
P.V Defines "Social research is the systematic methods of discovering the new fact or
verifying the old facts, their consequences,inter relationship, casual explanation and
the natural laws which govern them.”
ES Bogardus defines "Social research is the investigation of underline process
operated in the lives of person who are in association". It is a careful and critical
inquiry in seeking facts in order to formulate the theories or principles and to cure the
problems accordingly. The main mission of the research is to explore the existing
truth.
Hence we can say that:

 It is always directed towards the finding the new truth and seeks the solution of
the problems.
 It is always systematic, objective oriented, controlled and logically guided.
 It aims to dig out the truth or social reality.
 It is critical inquiry of any particular issues that exist in society.
 It is conducted to define and redefine the problems.
 Researcher reveals the new realities to theorize the knowledge .
 Research is supported by primary facts or cooked data.
 Major steps of social research
1.Statement of the problem/Selecting the topic or identification of the problem
2.Significance or rationale of Research
3.Formulating Research Questions
4.Objective of the research.
5.Limitations of the research.
6.Extensive literature surveys(literature review)
7.Theoritical position of the research.
8.Conceptual framework
9.Research methodology
10.Data processing and classification.
11.Data interpretation and analysis
12.Summary,conclusion and generalization
References/Bibliography
1.Statement of the Problem/Selecting the topic or Identification of the problem
This is the first step of Social research. While selecting the topic researcher should be
aware of the recent trends of the research processes. He can review the concerned
literature from research journals, research articles, conference papers, seminar
papers,dissertations,thesis,academic books, government reports and non government
records as well. His identifies problem should be
genuine,sensitive,original,beneficial,interesting and
researchable.People,program,problem and phenomena(p4)can also help him for
selecting the genuine issue.
2.Significance or rationale of Research
This is the second step of the social research.Afetr selecting the topic researcher
should say the importance, its originality and new way of viewing the issue through
different theoretical perspective.
3.Formulating Research Questions
People,problems,programs and phenomenon can be the best source for formulating
research questions. By finding the previous research gap and a problem lies in the
issues helps him to formulate the specific research questions. His own social context
and the given source can be the helpful criteria for crafting genuine research questions.
 4.Objective of the research:
Researcher should state the general and specific objectives in his selected topic. He has to
clearly mention what he is going to examine in his research problem.
5.Limitations of the research:
Researcher can mention his limitations in his research. There might be the limitation in
research methodology, in theoretical perspective and empirical limitations while doing the
qualitative research.Timing,budgeting,experience can also be the other limitations for research.
6.Extensive literature surveys(literature review):
Researcher can review through research journals, research articles, research based
books,dissertation,thesis,seminar papers, government reports, websites etc. It should be critical
evaluation of the previous writing that is relevant to what are you doing. It helps to widen his
knowledge at one hand and creating his position by finding the previous research gap to the
other. Literature review is very important task in sociological research. In order to find out the
research trends, research gaps, similarities and dissimilarities of his research issue literature
review is carried out.
7.Theoritical position of the research:
Researcher can select anyone of the theoretical lens which is relevant and appropriate to him in accordance
with the nature of issue. Different theories like suicide theory, trauma theory, theory of cultural alienation,
theory of depressions etc. can be use by researcher.
8.Conceptual framework:
It is an academic enterprise where researcher can develop his operational framework.e.g Suicide case arises
due to lack of social integration,frustation, by economic crisis, love tragedy, loosing social respect and honor
from the society etc.
9.Research methodology:
It is the most important aspect of social research. Researcher can select appropriate and adequate tools and
techniques in order to generate the primary data from the universe. Under this process the following steps
should be carried out in order to meet his specified objectives.
a.Sampling size, types and process
b.Selection of key informants, determining appropriate tools and techniques
c.Research design
 10.Data processing and classification:
 After the data collection is over and then researcher returns back to his central office. Under this
data processing, the unnecessary and raw data are omitted and cooked data are put in sequential
order in order to interpret and analyze the revealed data scientifically. Under this process he can
follow the steps like editing,coding,classification,categorization and others.
 11.Data interpretation and analysis:
 Under this process researcher can interpret the data by creating graphs, bar graphs,circles,pie-
charts,diagram and Venn diagram in order to interpret his numerical data. He can display and
interpret data with facts and figures.
 12.Summary,conclusion and generalization:
 This is the final steps of research process. After the interpretation and analysis of data is over
researcher comes to the final stage where he can precisely summarize his overall research work.
His summary must be grounded on research questions and the gist of the research findings. His
conclusion must be supported by research questions and revealed facts.
 Major types of Research
1.Basic/Pure/Fundamental research
2.Applied/Action Research
3.Exploratory Research
4.Descriptive Research
5.Research on trade,Commerce,Business And Industry
6.Historical Research
7.Longitudinal Research
8.Cross sectional Research
 1.Basic/Pure/Fundamental research: It is a type of research basically aims to find out the root
causes of the problems. It explores the internal and external enablers or social forces of a particular
social issue.it aims to formulate theories or principles and laws. It is conducted for the sake of
knowledge which is used to diagnose the social problems from every aspect. All the theories and
principles developed in the domain of sociological research are the product of pure research.
 2.Applied/Action Research: After the investigation of issue is over, then the researcher shifts into
the social engineering. After the root causes of the problems are identified then the sustainable
solutions are sought out. Created knowledge is used in solving the social problems. There are some
facilitator like donor agencies, financial corporate agencies, government and non government
agencies who helps in solving the financial problems of the researcher. Basic research diagnose the
problems and applied research cures the problems hence they are the two sides of same coin.
 3.Exploratory Research: This research is carried out in order to explore the social phenomenon or
problems. It aims to dig out new knowledge regarding its internal as external enablers of the
phenomenon. This research is preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem about which the
researcher has little or no knowledge. Example if the researcher has conducted the research on
“peasantry transformation then he can explore internal and external factors of land selling. He can
measure the variables in order to find out the root causes of fertile land selling.
 4.Descriptive Research:
In order to describe the phenomenon such research is accomplished. It revolves around the
collection of data in order to test hypothesis or to answer of the question concerning the
current status of the subject of the study. It aims to describe the causal factors
sociologically.
5.Research on trade,Commerce,Business And Industry:
Under this domain of research, researcher conducts the research in
trade,commerce,business and industry in order to know the about its recent trends in
regards with its production, distribution and consumption patterns, demand and supply of
goods and services, consumer's behavior etc.
6.Historical Research:
It is a branch of knowledge that basically deals with historical happenings.Here,researcher
supplies the past evidences to the present. In order to compare the present social issues
with the past such study is very helpful.
 7.Longitudinal Research:
 It is very important research carried out in the domain of anthropological research. Under this
process different historical trends are compared in order to know the fluidity of the
phenomena. David Holmberg a renowned anthropologist conducted the research on Tamang
in Nuwakot on the issue of ‘chhenchu’,a ritual of Tamang community. Under this process one
particular issue is studied again and again in order to know about its diametrical changes.
 8.Cross sectional Research:
 Cross sectional research is a method of examining a varied population at one point of time in
order to gather data about different life stage. This research is done for confirming whether the
revealed data is relevant or nor. In cross sectional research researcher observes at one point of
time. It can be exploratrory,descriptive or explanatory research. It may be repeated
periodically in order to update with the information. It can be conducted by any mode of data
collection including telephone interviews, face to face interview, email etc. according to the
needs and requirements of the research issues.
Sampling

 Sampling is the smaller representation of the larger whole. It is short-cut

alternative to study all the items. Researcher takes some fraction of the population
to study the whole populations as representative.
 Kerlinger sates that “Sampling is taken of any portion of a population or universe
as representative of that population or universe". A sample design is a definite
plan for obtaining a sample from a given population.
Major type of Sampling
 Probability Random Sampling
1. Simple Random Sampling
2. Regular-Marking Sampling
3. Irregular –Marking Sampling
4. Stratified Random Sampling
5. Multi-stage Sampling
Non- Probability Sampling
6. Purposive Sampling
7. Convenient Sampling
8. Quota sampling
9. Judgment Sampling
 A.Probability Random Sampling: It is one in which each and every item/each and every
unit/each and every division have equal opportunities to be selected for.Respondants selected
independently where each item gets equal chance for selection. Under this process, researcher
can deploy different types of sampling practices in order to select the items independently and
randomly.
 B.Non- Probability Sampling
 Non probability sampling is applied while random sampling does not work well.It is the
sampling in which researcher selects the items/units/informants by using his own judgment in
order to fulfill his specified objectives.
 Points to be remember in Sampling
 Sampling must be representative.
 About 40%-60% of the population is selected for scientific representation.
 There should be not any biasness and prejudices while selecting the items.
 If one particular sampling does not function well then the next sampling is applied.
 It saves time and budget.
 It is scientific way of conducting research in social science.
 Sampling size must be adequate and appropriate.
 Research Design
 Research Design is the overall plan ,strategy and entire picture of the research process. It is the
concrete answer of WH questions mediated through what,why,how ,when along with its
timing,budgeting,manpower,stationary goods and services. It is a blue print or overall
guideline of the entire research project.
 What?-Research issue
 Why?-Research objective
 How?-Research Methodology
 Where?-Universe of the Research site
 When?-Suitable timing
 Miscellaneous-Goods and services like timings and budgeting
F.N kerlinger defines that “Research design is the plan, structure and strategy of investigation,
conceived so as to obtain answer to research question and to control variables.”
P.V Young defines "Research design is the logical planning and directing of a piece of research". It is
the assignment of condition for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine the
relevance of research question and other necessary goods and service.
P.V Young has projected some basic components of research design.
They are:
 Sources of information tapped
 Nature of study
 Objectives of the study
 Socio-cultural context of the study
 Geographical areas to be covered by the study
 Period of time to be encompassed
 Dimension of the study
 The bases for selection of data
 Techniques to be used for gathering information
 Major Types of Research Design
1. Exploratory Research Design
2. Descriptive Research Design
3. Explanatory Research Design
4. Experimental Research Design
5. Time dimension Research Design
6. Longitudinal Research Design
7. Cross section Research Design
 Good Qualities of Research Design
 It helps as a guideline to proceed the research activities ahead.
 It provides the detail pictures of proposed research question.
 It helps in identifying timing ,budgeting and other necessary goods and services.
 It is a manual to execute the research processes further.
 It should be flexible and open.
 It provides overall plans and strategy statistically and logically.
 It answer the whole research questions.
Hence in conclusion. Research design is an overall plan ,strategy and entire pictures of
research processes. It gives the concrete answer of whole research question which is
mediated through what,why,how,when.where and by whom.
 Research tools and techniques of data Collection

Data collection is the most important task in the field of sociological and anthropological
research. Researcher should be good psychologist and should have the knowledge about the
cultural context before entering into the universe. He can use his artistic technique of
expression, electronic gazette, edible items, stationary goods along with other goods and
services according to the nature the nature and social context of the community for rapport
building.
Tools of data collection are:
1. Observation Method
2. Interview
3. Questionnaire
4. Social survey
5. Case study/Life History
6. Content Analysis
 1.Observation Method
Observation method is most important, authentic ,accurate and scientific tools of data
collection. It is the most classical and most trust worthy way of information gathering.
Researcher goes to field, builds the rapport with community and uses his five sense organs in
generating facts.
Major types and process of Observation method:
1. Participant observation method
2. Non participant Observation method
3. Controlled Observation method
4. Structured-Observation method
5. Unstructured Observation method
6. Quasi Observation method
7. Deliberate Observation Method
8. Mass Observation method
Merit of Observation Method
 Provision of collecting wider information
 High chance to get complete data
 Complete use of six sense organs
 Qualitative information is revealed
 Provision of testing and retesting
 Provision of high reliability and validity
 Provision of physical and mental presence
Demerits /Limitations of Observation method
 Complete observation is not possible.
 Requires larger amount and longer time.
 Researcher might become bias.
 Exact picture might not be revealed.
Interview
Interview is one of the most important tools of data collection .It is face to face
conversation which helps to reveal the exact data. Interviewer initiates interview with
interviewee on specified contents as a formal conversation for gathering information.
Kerlinger defines that "The interview is a face to face interpersonal role, situation in
which one person the interviewer ask a question interview with respondent, questions are
designed to obtain the answer pertinent to research problem. "In order to get details
description of issue researcher should be good psychologist, diplomat and honest towards
his own research work.
Baker defines that “Interview is a piece of social interaction with one person asking
another a number of questions and the other person giving answer." It is a research
method involves the collection of data through direct verbal interaction.
 Major Types of Research
1. Open-Ended Interview(Qualitative interview)
2. Close-Ended interview(Quantitative interview)
3. Key-informant interview
4. Structured interview
5. Unstructured interview
6. Single//Group –Contact interview
7. Short Contact/Prolonged Contact interview
8. Quantitative /qualitative/Mixed interview
The main task of Interviewer are:
 He should protect the respondents ego.
 He should evaluate whether his informant is providing correct data or not.
 There should be no repetition in question.
 He should acknowledge and appreciate the efforts put forwarded by interviewee.
 Very simple question are asked in obtaining the answers of the research questions.
 He should win the trust of his informants.
Questionnaire
Questionnaire is a set of question to be ask to the respondents. Question should be very
specific, precise and concrete.Unnessesary repetition, complexity question must be
omitted. While drafting the questions researcher should have the depth knowledge on the
contents and ground level reality of the informants to whom he is going to ask to his
research question.Reseracher drafts the question in a systematic manner and distribute to
his informants which is filled up by the respondents themselves hence it is non verbal.
Goode and Hatt says that “In general the word questionnaire refers to the device for
securing answer to question by using a form which the respondent fills by himself. "It is
the list of question sent to the number of version for them to answer.
Major Types of Questionnaire
1. Open –ended question
2. Close –ended question
3. Multiple –Choice question
4. Pictorial questionnaire
5. Structured/Non structured questions
Good qualities of Questionnaire
 Questions should be simple, precise and understandable.
 It should be designed within the premises of specific research question and objectives.
 Very direct, unnecessary and confidential questions must not be asked.
 It is non verbal in character.
 It aims to reveal the facts indirectly.
 Ambiguity and repetition must be avoided.
 Cultural aspects should be considered while drafting the questions.
 Social Survey(Piloting Study)
Social survey is one of the tools of data collection in which researcher generates the
preliminary information before actually the research is conducted. It enables the researcher
to generate required information on the issues and examines and evaluates everything
associated with objectives,methodology,timing,budgeting along with goods and services. It
helps to know about the real life situations of the people.
P.V Young defines ”A social survey is usually an enquiry in the collection activities and
living conditions of a group of people". It is a fact finding study conducted for a time being
in order to identify its prospects and challenges.
F.N kerlinger defines "Survey research studies large and small population by studying and
selecting sample chosen from the population discover the relative incident, distribution and
interrelationship of sociological and psychological variables". It enables the researcher to
prepare the entire research design for the further research. With the help of social survey
researcher generates the required information for further investigation.
Major Advantage of social survey/Piloting Study
 It enables the researcher to examine whether his research questions and objectives will
be fulfilled or not.
 It helps in identifying appropriate sampling procedures along with tools and
techniques of data collection.
 It helps to build the rapport with community members.
 It helps to choose appropriate way of conducting research task with limited budget and
timing.
 It enables the researcher to examine whether the actual research will be conducted or
not.
 It helps for feasibility study which is helpful for comprehensive research.
 Researcher examines whether he will be able to address his research questions or not.
Case study
Case study uses the logic of analytic instead of enumerative induction. The logic of
case study is to demonstrate a causal argument about how general social forces shape
and produce results in particular setting. It enables the researcher to connect the micro
level actions of individual people. Case study is depth study of the unit of
person ,community,institution,organization and other any social issue. It is the
microscopic study of an issue. Research journals,interview,life
history,letters,books,interview etc. are major sources of information.
Major types of Case Study
1.Personal/Group case Studies
2.Organization issues based case studies
1.Personal/Group case Studies:
In this case study Researcher can either select a person through which information is
collected. Historical books, The alcoholic groups and drug abused groups are studied in
depth by taking the information regarding their family background, educational status,
peer groups or social nexus and other formal and informal
networking.nterviews,letters,journals and life history can be the sources of data collection.
2.Organization issues based case studies:
Researcher can conduct the research on any organization like Nepal Rastra bank.
Researcher studies the overall aspects of the organization mediated through its
origin,development,working procedure, rules and regulation of the organization,
recruitment of employees etc. an issues is studied in a very comprehensive way.
Hence we can say that Case study is:
 Very comprehensive and entire study.
 Wider information is collected.
 There is a provision of subjective and objective interpretation.
 Real life situation is captured.
 Microscopic analysis of the issue.
 Facts are traced out through research journals,articles,life history, letters etc.
Content Analysis
Content analysis is a technique for examining information or content in written or
symbolic materials eg.pictures ,movies,songs,lyrics etc. It is used for exploratory and
explanatory research.it is one of the tools of data analytical framework .In order to know
the present trend, peoples opinion towards a particular issues and to compare with his
research findings relevant contents are analyzed academically.
P.V Young opinion that “Content analysis is a research techniques for systematic objective
and quantitative description of the content of research data processed through
interviews,questionnaire,schedules and other linguistic expressions written or oral.”
F.N Kerlinger defines that “Content analysis is a method of studying and analyzing
communication in a systematic objectives and quantitative manner for the purpose of
mearuing variables.”
Hence we can say that:
 It is depth study of the nature of phenomena.
 It is the provision of quantitative and qualitative analysis mediated through objectives
and subjective reality.
 It is the depth study of the data and the context of phenomena which help to
understand between and among the variables.
 It is the study of linguistic expressions.
 Context, characters and activities are analyzed through every viewpoint.
Field Work
Field work is a hallmark of sociological or anthropological research. It is a
compulsory criteria for researcher. Researcher should go to the field, build rapport
with community, determine the sampling procedures and then apply the appropriate
tools and techniques in generating the facts. It helps to study "in and out” of people
as a multi sited areas.
Goode and Hatt state that "Field work is the study of people and their culture in their
natural situation". It is the investigation of real life situation through observation and
informal discussions.
F.N Kerlinger is of opinion that "Field study is the scientific enquiry aimed at
discovering the relationship, interaction among sociological and education variables
in real social structures.”
Major Preparations of Field Work
1. Intellectual Preparation
2. Methodological preparations
3. Psychological Preparations
4. Physical Preparations
5. Preparation of miscellaneous items.
Hence, Field work enables
 To study people by directly involving with them.
 To gain and understand the social world.
 To know the overall aspects of society and their real life situation.
 It is the universe where you can test and retest your hypothesis.
 Field work is our testing laboratory where we can test and measure the variables.
 Proposal Writing
Proposal writing is an art where researcher can write any issue according to his own interest by
following certain outlines. He has to prepare the proposal and submit it to the concerned authority
for acceptance. It is the first stage of research process. In practice ,it is prepared in future tense.
The major Outlines of Proposal Writing
1. Introduction/Statement of the Problem
2. Significance /Rationale of the research
3. Formulating the research Question
4. Formulating the specific objectives
5. Limitation of the research
6. Extensive literature Survey/Literature Review
7. Theoretical position and conceptual framework
8. Research Methodologies
9. Data processing, Interpretation and Analysis
Bibliography/References
Research Report Writing and Presentation(Report Writing)
It is an oral and written presentation of entire research. It is the final stage of research project. It is written in
past tense. In academic research researcher prepares the report what he has found from the universe.
Major Outlines of Report writing
Part 1:Priliminary Part
 Title page and the name of the researcher
 Letter of Recommendation
 Approval and Acceptance Letter
 Declaration
 Acknowledgement
 Abstract of the research
 Table of contents
 List of tables
 List of figures
 Acronyms(abbreviations)
 Glossary
 Part 2:Main body of the text
1. Introduction/Statement of the Problem
2. Significance /Rationale of the research
3. Formulating the research Question
4. Formulating the specific objectives
5. Limitation of the research
6. Extensive literature Survey/Literature Review
7. Deploying Theoretical position and Formulating conceptual framework
8. Research Methodologies
a.Sampling Design
b.Research Design
c.Selecting appropriate tools And techniques

9.Data Interpretation and Analysis

10.Summary Conclusion and Generalization
Bibliography/References
Relevance of Social Research to Business
administration
 Academic research is very important in every field. In order to achieve the goal of
the organization administrator and his team can conduct the research with the
collaboration of sociologist. Researcher can dig out the root causes of the
organization at one hand and provide the academic sustainable solutions to the other.
Organizational ethnography can be resourceful insight for the growth and
development of organization. Sociology supplies different theoretical lens,
methodological techniques, qualitative research packages rooted in societal issues
that helps in achieving the goal of the organization in this competitive world.