WHAT TO DO WHEN THE

NUMBERS ARE IN
A lecture on data analysis and its applications
Targets
• Situate researchers in the
data analysis process
• Perform proper diagnosis a
problem
• Specify appropriate statistical
test/s given a problem
• Generate statistical results
using SPSS
• Make sensible interpretation
of data analysis results
 What is data analysis?

Making sense out a set

of raw observations with
the aim of addressing
the goal(s) of the
research
Learning from MDs…

• Diagnose patient
• Prescribe appropriate
tests/meds
• Secure lab results
• Interpret lab results
 As researchers…

• Diagnose the problem

• Specify statistical test
• Retrieve analysis
results
• Interpret analysis
results
 Diagnosing a problem

• What are the questions to be

answered?
• What’s the analysis required
by the question?
• What is the nature of the data?
• For comparative analysis, how
many means are to be
compared?
 Some notes on
measurement scales

Nominal/Ordinal
• No fundamental operation could
be performed
Interval
• “0” does not mean the absence of
the attribute being measured
Ratio
• “0” means absence of the attribute
 Some notes on
measurement scales

You can “scale up” but

can’t “scale down”
- Interval/ratio to
nominal
- Interval/ratio to ordinal
- Ordinal to nominal
Common S-Tests
 Examples

What is the average course Type of analysis

– Descriptive
grade of those students who
Nature of data
attended the review and
– Interval or ratio
those who did not?
Data analysis
– Mean
– SD
 Examples (cont.)
Type of analysis
How many are pro or - Descriptive
against Nature of data
the merging of - Nominal
departments Data analysis
- Frequency distribution
when analyzed gender?
- Percentage distribution
 Examples (cont.)
Do the average grade of
those
students who attended the
review significantly differ
from
those who did not attend?
Type of analysis
– Comparative
Nature of data
– Interval or ratio
# of means compared
– 2; coming from diff samples
Data analysis
– T-test for independent
samples
 Examples (cont.)

Does the average grade of Type of analysis

– Comparative
students significantly
Nature of data
differ – Interval or ratio
before and after taking the # of groups compared
– 2; coming from same
review? samples
Data analysis
– T-test for dependent
samples
 Examples (cont.)

Is there a significant Type of analysis

– Comparative
difference in the work
Nature of data
performance of – Interval or ratio
employees who are 5 # of groups compared
years or below, 6-10 – 3; coming from diff samples
years and 11 or more Data analysis
– ANOVA
years in the company?
 Examples (cont.)
Is there a significant Type of analysis
– Correlational
relationship between the
Nature of data
gender of the youth and – Nominal
their stand on abortion Data analysis
– Chi-square test of
issue? association
– Phi coefficient*

Note: The data on the variables being

related should come from the same
sample.
 Examples (cont.)

Is there a significant Type of analysis

– Correlational
relationship between Nature of data
grades of – Interval or ratio
Data analysis
the students and the salary
– Pearson r
of
their teachers?

Note: Remember the note...

 Interpreting results:
p-value approach
• Alternative to classical
approach (tabular approach)
• Focus is on the probability
(p-value) that you would be
wrong if you reject the
hypothesis – not on the
computed and the standard
test statistic
 Interpreting results:
p-value approach

• Generate the p-value of a

certain test
• Compare the p-value to
the level of significance
(usually 0.05)
Interpreting results:
p-value approach
• Decide over the H0
– If p-value is  to 0.05;
the result of the test is
significant; reject H0
– Do not reject H0, if
otherwise
• Connect with what others
have
 Question 1

What is the average of grade of

those students who attended the
review and those who did not?
 Results

• Who’s grades are relatively higher?

• Are these results similar to what others have
found out? or not?
 Question 2

Do the average grade of those students who

attended the review significantly differ from
those who did not attend?
 Results

• What do the numbers mean?

• Are these results similar to what others have
found out? or not?
 Question 3

Is the work performance of the respondents

significantly related to their monthly salary
and number of working hours?
Results
 Question 3

Is their a significant difference in work

performance of the respondents who
earned undergraduate, graduate and
post graduate degrees?
Results
• The performance of the 3 groups significantly differ.
• Reject H0
• But, is it the graduates with significantly diff. performance compared
to the undergraduates? Or is it the post graduates against the
undergraduates?
 • Undergraduates vs. Graduates
• Undergraduates vs. Postgraduates
• Graduates vs. Postgraduates
• Graduates over the undergraduates
• Postgraduates over the undergraduates
• Postgraduates over the graduates