PRODUCTION

TECHNOLOGY - II
METAL CUTTING
 THERMAL ASPECT IN MACHINING

CUTTING TEMPERATURE
 Approximately 98% of the energy in machining is converted into heat
 This can cause temperatures to be very high at the tool‑chip
 The remaining energy (about 2%) is retained as elastic energy in the chip

HIGH CUTTING TEMPERATURES

 Reduce tool life
 Produce hot chips that pose safety hazards to the machine operator
 Can cause inaccuracies in part dimensions due to thermal expansion of
work material
SOURCE OF HEAT GENERATION IN MACHINING
EFFECTS OF HIGH TEMPERATURE

On Tool
• Rapid Tool Wear
• Plastic deformation of edge
• Thermal flaking and deformation
• BUE formation

On Workpiece
• Thermal distortion and dimensional inaccuracy
• Surface damage by oxidation, corrosion, burning, etc.
• Thermal micro cracks and residual stresses
• Hot machining
PURPOSE OF MEASURING TEMPERATURE
• Assessment of machinability
• Design and selection of cutting tools
• Helps to proper selection of tools
• Proper selection of cutting fluids
• Analysis of temperature distribution
MESUREMENT OF CHIP-TOOL INTERFACE TEMPERATURE
• Tool-work thermocouple
• Moving thermocouple
• Radiation pyrometers
• Embedded thermocouples
• Temperature sensitive paints, etc.
TOOL WORK THERMOCOUPLE METHOD
MOVING THERMOCOUPLE METHOD
EMBEDDED THERMOCOUPLE METHOD
 TOOL WEAR
Tool wear and failure mechanisms are of great practical interest because they
affect machining costs and quality. Tools that wear slowly have comparatively
long and predictable service lives, resulting in reduced production costs and
more consistent dimensions and surface finish. Tools that fail rapidly and
unpredictably increase costs and scrap rates. For these reasons, tool life is the
most common criterion used to rate cutting tool performance and the
machinability of materials.

An understanding of the tool life requires an understanding of the ways in which

tools fail. Broadly, tool failure may result from wear, plastic deformation, or
fracture. Tool wear may be classified by the region of the tool affected or by the
physical mechanisms that produce it. The dominant type of wear in either case
depends largely on the tool material.
Types of wear on cutting tools: (a) flank wear; (b) crater wear; (c) notch wear; (d) nose radius wear;
(e) comb (thermal) cracks; (f) parallel (mechanical) cracks; (g) built-up edge; (h) gross plastic
deformation; (i) edge chipping or frittering; (j) chip hammering; (k) gross fracture.
 TOOL WEAR
Tools get worn out due to long term usage, Wear occurs on both the rake and relief
faces of the tool
Types of Tool Wear
 Flank wear (VB)
 Wear occurs on the relief face of the tool and the side relief angle is called
flank wear and results in the formation of a wear land
 Crater wear (KT)
 Rake face or crater wear occurs on the rake face of the tool.
 Notch wear or Chipping (VN)
 Breaking away of a small piece from the cutting edge of the tool.
Variation of the flank wear rate with cutting time, showing the initial wear, steady wear, and
severe wear periods.
 TOOL WEAR

Crater wear (KT)

Notch
wear (VN)

Flank wear (VB) Flank wear rate based on cutting speed

 TOOL WEAR
• Abrasion - dominant cause of flank wear (hard
particles abrade and remove material from the
tool)

• Adhesion – high pressure localized fusion and

rupturing (small particles of the tool adhere or
weld to the chip due to friction and are removed
from the tool surface)

• Diffusion – Loss of hardening atoms at tool-chip

boundary (contributes to crater wear) (constituent
of the tool material diffuses into or forms a solid
solution with the chip material)

• Plastic deformation – contributes to flank wear

• Three pronounced wearing regions

Adhesive and abrasive wear are the most significant types of wear at lower cutting speeds.
Adhesive or attritional wear occurs when small particles of the tool adhere or weld to the
chip due to friction and are removed from the tool surface. It occurs primarily on the rake
face of the tool and contributes to the formation of a wear crater. Adhesive wear rates are
usually low, so that this form of wear is not normally practically significant. However,
significant adhesive wear may accompany built-up edge (BUE) formation, since the BUE is
also caused by adhesion and can result in chipping of the tool. This occurs primarily when
cutting soft work materials at low speeds, and in drilling.
Abrasive wear occurs when hard particles abrade and remove material from the tool. The
abrasive particles may be contained in the chip, as with adhering sand in sand-cast parts,
iron carbides from foundry chill in cast iron, martensite, austenite, and other hard phases in
steels, free silicon particles in aluminum-silicon alloys, and fibers in metal matrix
composites. They may also result from the chip form or from a chemical reaction between
the chips and cutting fluid, as with powder metal steels (which form a powdery chip) or cast
irons alloyed with chromium. Abrasion occurs primarily on the flank surface of the tool.
Abrasive wear by hard particles entrained in the cutting fluid is sometimes called erosive
wear. Abrasive wear is usually the primary cause of flank wear, notch wear, and nose radius
wear, and as such is often the form of wear that controls tool life, especially at low to
medium cutting speeds. Abrasive wear also affects crater wear.
In diffusion or solution wear, a constituent of the tool material diffuses into or forms a
solid solution with the chip material. This weakens the tool surface and results in a wear
crater on the rake face of the tool. Severe cratering ultimately leads to tool failure due to
breakage. The diffusion wear rate depends primarily on the solubility of the tool material
in the work material and the contact time between the tool and chip at elevated
temperatures, and increases exponentially as the cutting temperature increases.
Diffusion wear can be reduced by changing tool materials to a less soluble grade.
Mechanisms, Characteristics and Counter measures for Common Types of Tool Wear and Failure
Type of Wear Mechanism Characteristics Counter measures
Flank wear Abrasion Even wear scar Use harder tool material
      Use coated tool
      Filter cutting fluid
      Clean parts
      Refine part microstructure
      Reduce feed rate
  Thermal softening   Reduce speed
  Cutting above center height Poor finish Check insert height
  Edge deformation Edge deformed See below under “Edge deformation”
  Feed too low Poor finish Increase feed
Crater wear Diffusion Rapid wear rate Reduce cutting speed (*)
      Improve cooling ability of coolant
      Increase coolant volume and pressure
      Direct coolant toward chip/tool interface
  Chemical wear Smooth wear scar Change tool or coating material or coolant
  Feed too low Poor finish Increase feed rate
Notch wear Abrasion Occurs at part free surface Vary depth of cut
      Use harder tool
      Increase lead angle
Oxidation Discoloration Change coolant
    Reduce speed (*)
    Change tool material or coating
Type of Wear Mechanism Characteristics Counter measures
Nose radius wear Abrasion Rough, uneven scar Reduce feed (*)
      Use harder tool
      Increase nose radius
Edge cracking Thermal fatigue Cracks normal to edge Reduce cutting speed (*)
      Machine dry
      Use tougher tool
  Mechanical fatigue Cracks parallel to edge Reduce feed (*)
      Use tougher tool
Built up edge Adhesion Poor surface finish Increase cutting speed
      Increase rake angle
      Increase lubricity of coolant
Edge deformation Overload Occurs rapidly Reduce feed (*)
  Thermal softening   Use harder tool
      Reduce speed (*)
      Increase coolant supply
      Use low-friction coating
Edge chipping Abrasion (hard spots)   Inspect work material
      Use tougher tool
      Use stronger edge preparation
      Reduce feed (*)
  Improper chip breaker   Increase chip-breaker land width
  Vibration Noise, chatter marks Increase system stiffness
      Use tougher tool
    Use stronger edge preparation
    Reduce depth of cut (*)
Type of Wear Mechanism Characteristics Counter measures
  Intermittent coolant   Increase coolant supply or cut dry
  Improper seating   Check seat condition
  Adhesion Built up edge See above under “built-up edge”
Chip hammering Improper chip flow Damage away from edge Change chip flow direction (change lead
angle or tool nose radius)
Gross fracture Overload Occurs rapidly Use tougher tool
      Increase nose radius
      Use stronger edge preparation
      Reduce feed (*)
      Reduce depth of cut (*)
  Vibration Noise, chatter marks Increase system stiffness
      Use tougher tool
      Decrease nose radius
      Use stronger edge preparation
      Reduce depth of cut (*)

Note: This table presents general information which is most directly applicable to continuous turning and boring.
Countermeasures marked with an asterisk (*) reduce the metal removal rate and should be used only as a last resort in general
purpose machining.
 TOOL LIFE
 Tool life represents the useful life of the tool, expressed generally in time units
from the start of cut to some end point defined by a failure criterion.
Tool Life Prediction
 Taylor’s tool life equation predicts tool failure based on flank wear of the tool
𝑛
𝑉 𝑇 =𝐶
where
• V is the cutting speed, t is the tool life,
• C is a constant given for work piece material
• n is Taylor exponent.
• n=0.125 for HSS
• n=0.25 for Carbide
• n=0.5 for Coated Carbide/Ceramic
(a) In R & D: Actual machining time (period) by which a fresh cutting tool (or
point) satisfactorily works after which it needs replacement or reconditioning. The
modern tools hardly fail prematurely or abruptly by mechanical breakage or rapid
plastic deformation. Those fail mostly by wearing process which systematically
grows slowly with machining time. In that case, tool life means the span of actual
machining time by which a fresh tool can work before attaining the specified limit
of tool wear. Mostly tool life is decided by the machining time till flank wear, VB
reaches 0.3 mm or crater wear, KT reaches 0.15 mm.

(b) In industries or shop floor: The length of time of satisfactory service or amount
of acceptable output provided by a fresh tool prior to it is required to replace or
recondition.
Assessment of tool life
For R & D purposes, tool life is always assessed or expressed by span of
machining time in minutes, whereas, in industries besides machining time in
minutes some other means are also used to assess tool life, depending upon the
situation, such as:
1. Number of pieces of work machined.
2. Total volume of material removed.
3. Total length of cut.
The usual pattern of growth of cutting tool wear (mainly VB), principle of assessing
tool life and its dependence on cutting velocity are schematically shown
The tool life obviously decreases with the increase in cutting velocity keeping other
conditions unaltered as indicated in Fig. If the tool lives, T1, T2, T3, T4 etc. are
plotted against the corresponding cutting velocities, V1, V2, V3, V4 etc as shown in
Fig. a smooth curve like a rectangular hyperbola is found to appear. When F. W.
Taylor plotted the same figure taking both V and T in log-scale, a more distinct
linear relationship appeared as schematically shown in Fig.
 OPERATOR’S TOOL LIFE
Tool life is measured by:

• Visual inspection of tool edge

• Tool breaks
• Fingernail test
• Changes in cutting sounds
• Chips become ribbony, stringy
• Surface finish degrades
• Computer interface says
- power consumption up
- cumulative cutting time reaches certain level
- cumulative number of pieces cut reaches certain value
 TOOL LIFE EXAMPLE
The n and C values are based on a feed rate of 0.01 in./rev and a depth of cut of 0.10 in.
Determine and compare the cubic inches of steel removed for each of the following
tool materials if a 15 minute tool life is required in each case:
a) HSS (n = 0.125 and C = 200 ft/min)
b) ceramic (n = 0.6 and C = 10,000 ft/min)

Solution:
Approach is to determine the MRR = v f d. We are given the feed rate and the depth of
cut; thus, need to calculate the cutting speed.
Given Taylor’s equation and the n and C values, we can solve for v and thus determine
the MRR.
Given the MRR, we multiply it by the cutting time to get the volume of material
removed.
Tool life example
Solution for HSS:

n = 0.125 and C = 200 ft/min (for steel cutting)

From v Tn = C we solve for v:

v = 200/(15)0.125= 142.6 ft/min

Now, get the MRR:

MRR = (142.6) (12) (0.01) (0.10) = 1.71 in3/min

Volume removed in 15 min is (15) (1.71) = 25.66 in3

 Tool life example
Solution for ceramic:
n = 0.6 and C = 10,000 ft/min
n
From v T = C we solve for v:
v = 10,000/(15)0.6= 1969.5 ft/min
Now, get the MRR:
MRR = (1969.5) (12) (0.01) (0.10) = 23.63 in3/min
Volume removed in 15 min is (15) (23.63) = 354.5 in3
Ceramic about an order-of-magnitude more effective than HSS!
 MODIFIED TOOL LIFE EQUATIONS

n1 n2 n3
TV f d = C

n1 n2 n3
T = CV f d
 MACHINABILITY
• Machinability is a system property that indicates how easy a material can be
machined at low cost.
• Good machinability may mean one or more of the following: cutting with minimum
energy, minimum tool wear, good surface finish, etc.
Quantitative measures of machinability
• Machinability index: an average rating stated in comparison with reference
materials. This measure can be misleading.
• Tool life: service time in minutes or seconds to total failure by chipping or
cracking of the tool at certain cutting speed, or the volume of material removed
before total failure.
• Surface finish produced at standardized cutting speeds and feeds.
• Others based on cutting force, power, temperature, or chip formation.
 MACHINABLE MATERIALS
Good machinable materials should have the following properties
• Low ductility, low strain-hardening exponent (n), low fracture
toughness.
• Low shear strength (low TS), low hardness.
• A strong metallurgical bond (adhesion) between tool and work piece is
undesirable when it weakens the tool material.
• Very hard compounds, such as some oxides, all carbides, many inter
metallic compounds, and elements such as silicon, embedded in the
work piece material accelerate tool wear, thus should be avoided.
• Inclusions that soften at high temperatures are beneficial.
• High thermal conductivity is helpful.
 MACHINABLE MATERIALS
• Ferrous materials
• Carbon steels: annealed, heat-treated (spheroidized), cold worked
• Free-machining steels: special inclusions
• Alloy steels: hard
• Stainless steels: high strength, low thermal conductivity, high strain hardening
rate
• Cast iron: white, gray, nodular cast iron

• Non-ferrous materials
• Zinc, Magnesium, Aluminum alloys, Beryllium, Copper-based alloys, Nickel-
based alloys and super alloys,
• Titanium, Plastics, composites.
 FACTORS AFFECTING MACHINING
Parameter Influence and inter-relationship
Cutting speed, Forces, power, temperature rise, tool life, type of chip, surface finish.
depth of cut, feed,
cutting fluid
Tool angle As above, influence on chip flow direction; resistance to tool chipping.
Continuous chip Good surface finish; steady cutting forces; undesirable in automated
machinery.
Built-up edge chip Poor surface finish; thin stable edge can protect tool surfaces.
Discontinuous Desirable for ease of chip disposal; fluctuating cutting forces; can affect
chip surface finish and cause vibration and chatter.
Temperature rise Influences tool life, particularly crater wear, and dimensional accuracy of
workpiece; may cause thermal damage to workpiece surface.
Tool wear Influences surface finish, dimensional accuracy, temperature rise, forces
and power.
Machinability Related to tool life, surface finish, forces and power.
 CUTTING FLUIDS
A fluid which is used in machining as well as abrasive
machining processes to reduce friction and tool wear

Function of cutting fluids

• Lubrication
• Cooling
• Chip removal

Types
• Straight Oil (Petroleum based oils)
• Soluble Oil (water based oils)
 FUNCTION OF CUTTING FLUID
• To keep tool cool and prevent it from being heated
• To reduce friction and power consumption, hence increase the tool life
• To decrease adhesion between chip and tool
• To cool workpiece to prevent expansion
• To wash away chips and keep cutting region free mainly during deep
hole drilling, hacksawing, milling and grinding.
• To protect the finished surface from corrosion
• To improve machinability
CHARACTERISTICS OF CUTTING FLUID

• High specific heat and thermal conductivity

• Ability of spreading and wetting
• High lubricity without gumming and forming
• Chemical stable and non corrosive
• Non toxic, odourless and colorless
• It should have high film boiling point and high flash point
• High resistance to bacterial growth
• Easily available with low cost
 TYPES OF CUTTING FLUID

Most commonly used cutting fluids

• Either aqueous based solutions or cutting oils
• Fall into three categories
• Cutting oils
• Emulsifiable oils
• Chemical (synthetic) cutting fluids
Types of Cutting Fluids
• OILS
• EMULSIONS
• SEMI-SYNTHESIS
• SYNTHETICS

Methods of Application
FLOOD COOLING
MIST COOLING
HIGH PRESSURE REFRIGERATED SYSTEMS
CLASSIFICATION OF CUTTING FLUID

• Active / Inactive Terms relate to oil's chemical activity

or ability to react with metal surface
• Elevated temperatures
• Improve cutting action
• Protect surface
Active Cutting Oils
Those that will darken copper strip immersed for 3 hours at temperature of 212ºF
Dark or transparent
Better for heavy-duty jobs
Three categories
Sulfurized mineral oils
Sulfochlorinated mineral oils
Sulfochlorinated fatty oil blends

 Inactive Cutting Oils

• Oils will not darken copper strip immersed in them for 3 hours at 212ºF
• Contained sulfur is natural
• Termed inactive because sulfur so firmly attached to oil – very little released
• Four general categories
• Straight mineral oils, fatty oils, fatty and mineral oil blends, sulfurized fatty-
mineral oil blend
• Effects of Cutting Fluids
• WORKPIECE MATERIALS
• MACHINE TOOLS

• Biological and Environmental Effects

• OPERATOR CONTACT
• EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT
• DEGREDATION & CHEMICAL CHANGE

• Waste Management
• CLARIFICATION
• RECYCLING
• DISPOSAL