Chapter 4

Advanced Optimal Control Systems

 Contents
• Sliding mode control
• Parameter optimization
• Sliding mode control
 Sliding mode control
• Is a type of discontinuous control
• Falls under the class of variable structure
control, a set of continuous subsystems
together with a switching logic
• Started in the 1950’s
• Is a modification to the oldest control
structure of bang-bang or relay control
 Sliding mode control
• Consider a first order tracking system
 Sliding mode control
• The above relay control system is applied in
may practical systems such as temperature
control
• The controller is a discontinuous controller
which takes place based on the error value
only
• Such a controller is good but not effective or
optimal
 Sliding mode control
• A modification to the above control system is the
state feedback control with variable structure
implementation
• Consider a linear system given by

• A general state feedback to this system is given by

• This is a fixed structure system and the controller

parameters K can be selected based on pole
placement or parameter optimization
 Sliding mode control
• In variable structure, the control is not fixed but
varies from U1=f1(x) to U2=f2(x) etc. The
functions f1(x), f2(x) etc and how to switch
from one to the other is the design problem
• VSC is useful
– To combine useful properties of f1 and f2
– To achieve a better property which is not present in
any one of the two ( stable system may be obtained
from two unstable/marginally stable systems
 Sliding mode control
• Example 1. consider a second order system
given by
x  kx
• Take two values of K, K1=5 and K2=10. The
system is unstable for both values, actually the
system is unstable for all values of K>0.
• But if we switch the control using the phase
plane as 10 when x x  0
k 
 5 when x x  0
 Sliding mode control
• When the two structures are switched or varied
as given above, a new stable operation is
obtained
• This property of variable structure systems,
which gives a new operation or behavior which
is not available in the individual systems is an
interesting one
• The motion of the system over the line xx is
referred as sliding mode
 Sliding mode
• Example 2: second order system with control
input
x  ax  u
• Take a state feedback control u=-kx
• The system is unstable for both k>0 or less
than zero.
• But let us define a switching logic given by
s  cx  x
 Sliding mode control
• And let the controller be chosen to switch
based on the above signal, i.e.
 kx when s  0
u
 kx when s  0

• The system becomes stable

 Introduction of Sliding Mode Control
• If c<c0, the state trajectories are towards the line switching line s=0
• State trajectories cannot leave and belong to the switching line s=0 : sliding mode
• After sliding mode starts, further motion is governed by s  cx  x  0 : sliding mode equation

x
1 s  0, x  0 2 s  0, x  0

In sliding mode,
the system motion is
(1) governed by 1st order
x equation (reduced order).
(2) depending only on ‘c’ not
plant dynamics.
s  0 or
cx  x  0
c  c0
2 s  0, x  0 1 s  0, x  0
c0 x  x  0
State planes of Variable Structure System
 Sliding mode control
• In sliding mode
– Order of the motion equation reduces
– During sliding the motion of the system is linear
and homogenous
– The system motion during sliding depends on the
parameter selected by designer and not on system
dynamics
– System is tolerant to external disturbances,
parameter variation and hence is robust
 Sliding mode control
• General procedure
– Model the system in state space and determine the
states to be controlled
– In case of tracking control with reference, rewrite
the state equation in terms of error
– Determine the sliding surface
– Determine the controller using u=f(x)=Ueq+Udis
• Lyapunove method = how to determine K
• Reaching law method = start with sliding dynamics sdot
 SMC design using Lyapunove method

• Form the state space system equation

• Find an appropriate Lyapunove function
• Find the derivative of the LF
• Find appropriate control signal and system
parameters to achieve negative definite
criteria of the derivative of the LF
SMC design using reaching law method
• Reaching law method determines the
dynamics of the switching function initially
• Constant rate reaching law s=c1x1+x2

• Constant plus proportional reaching law

• Power rate reaching law

• K and Q are parameters to be selected

 Examples
• Design a SMC for the 2nd order system shown
below.
•

• The term in red color is disturbance.

• First design sliding surface
– The sliding surface will have a form of
 Examples
• The parameter c in the sliding surface will be
determined based on the speed of decay for
the states of the system.
• Let us assume c=0.5.
• Then we need to define the controller.
– Simple sliding mode
• The controller will be
• The value of K will be determined based on the
Lyapunove stability criteria
 Examples
• Let the Lyapunove function be

=)=+ )
The maximum value of the disturbance is 8 or -8
To make the derivative less than zero, We need to
select the value of K so that it will be greater than
the disturbance which is 8.
MATLAB implementation
• The above output shows the system output has
rejected the disturbance and has good response.
But the controller is as shown in next figure
The control signal has very high chattering and
cannot be practically applied
• If the value of the gain K is decreased, let us
say K=5, then the output is as shown below
 Examples
• The chattering can be improved by changing
the discontinuous controller from sign to
saturation, as shown below
• The control signal after using the saturation
function will be
 Example
• In addition to changing the sgn function to saturation, we can
add an additional smooth controller to decrease the
saturation.
• The smooth controller contributed to keep the system on the
sliding surface.
• It is known as equivalent controller. It is obtained using the
formula

– For the present system using the formula

– The complete controller then becomes

Second order system with equivalent
controller
 Example
• With the addition of the equivalent controller,
the system performance will be improved
 DC motor example
• A DC motor control example given in
MATLAB(control system tool box, demo, dc
motor)
 DC motor example
• Feed forward, feedback and LQR controllers
have been used to reject disturbance torque
of 0.1N.
 DC motor example
• A simple sliding mode controller with sliding
surface of and switching controller of Ksgn(s)
is implemented
The disturbance rejection capacity of SMC
 DC motor example
• As can be seen above, the disturbance
rejection capacity of the SMC is better than
LQR.
• S=2e+edot
• Sdot=2edot+eddot=-Qsgn(s)
 H2 and H infinity controllers
• Matrix norms
– Norm is a single number used to express the size
or magnitude of a vector or matrix or system
– The most common norm is the Euclidean norm,
which is distance between two points
– Properties
• Non negative
• Positive
• Homogenous
• Triangle inequality (a^2+b^2)>=(a+b)^2
 H2 and H infinity controllers
• Vector norms
– A vector having n elements is said to be n-
dimensional vector

– In vector description, order of elements do matter.

Hence

– The set of all n vectors, with elements from real

number is denoted by
 H2 and H infinity controllers
• A vector space is a set V, with two operations +
and . Which satisfy
– Additive closure
• Adding two vectors gives a vector
– Additive commutatively
• Order of addition do not matter
– Additive associatively
• Order of adding many vectors do not matter
– Zero
• There must be a vector 0v with property such that ,
addition of any vector with 0v gives the vector its self
 H2 and H infinity controllers
• Vector norms
– When all elements of a vector are zero, the vector
is said to be zero vector
– There are three types of vector norms
• i) 1-norm – sum of absolute value of elements
V=[1 -2 -5]
• ii) 2-norm is square root of sum of square of elements

• iii) -norm is the maximum of the absolute value of

elements
• Matrix norms
– Similar to vector norms, we have matrix norms given
by
• Sum matrix norm

• Euclidean norm

• Max element norm

• Induced norm for a system with input w, output Z and

transfer function A, induced norm is defined as
 Signal and system norms
• Consider a system with input d(t), output e(t)
and transfer function G(s)
– Signal norms can be defined for the output e(t)
– 1-norm in time (integral absolute )

– 2 norm in time

–  norm

– Power norm or RMS norm

 Signal and system norms
• The system performance can be evaluated or
controller can be designed by taking various
input signal types and output norms
• The most important ones are H2 and H
norms (g(t) is impulse response of G(s))
– H2 is defined as

– H norm is defined as
 Signal and system norms
• Another most important norm for systems is
the L1 norm

• Based on the norms used for input and

output, the system performance can be
evaluated by H2, H-infinity or L1 norms
• Example – DC motor example
• Infinity norm =2norm of speed output /2
norm of disturbance
P11=[r d] to output Ia
Dia/dt=1/L(v-iaRa-eb)

K DC motor
 H2 and H-infinity control
• Consider a general control configuration

– A general description of the system is

 H2 and H-infinity control
• The loop transfer function from input w to z is
given by

– Where the linear fractional transformation F is given

by

• H2 control is minimization of 2-norm of F

• H-infinity control is minimization of infinity norm
of F
 H2 optimal control problem
• The H2 optimal control problem is given the
generalized closed loop plant, find a controller
K which minimizes the performance index
given by
 H infinity optimal control
• The H infinity optimal control is, given the
general control configuration, find a controller
K which minimizes
 H-infinity loop shaping controller
• This is a two stage solution where we design a
controller which is robust stable and achieves
a given performance
– Open loop plant is compensated by pre and post
compensators to achieve a desired shape for the
open loop singular values /bode plot/
– Then robust stability is achieved with a design of
H-infinity minimization (hinfstruct)
• Source of chattering
– Switching controller capacity
• Modify the switching controller
– Super twisting
– Integral sliding
– Unable to get controller that can hold the system
on the sliding surface
• Equivalent controller
 Assignment II
• 1) Read chapter 9 of multi variable control
• 2) design an H-infinity loop shaping controller for the plant

– Such that GCF of final plant is 10rad/s and performance is as

good as possible
3) List the similarity and difference between H2 and H-
infinity control problems
4) Explain the relation between LQG and H-infinity control
problem
5) Design and simulate SMC controller for DC motor