PHYSICAL SCIENCE

Moseley’s X-ray Spectroscopy

Henry Gyn-Jeffreys Moseley
most of the properties of an element can be determined on its atomic number

studied radioactivity in Ernest Rutherford’s laboratory but later decided to explore

more on X-rays

he measured the x-ray spectral lines of an element as he bombarded a beam of

electrons to different elements to determine its atomic number
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Moseley’s X-ray Spectroscopy

Henry Gyn-Jeffreys Moseley
believed that frequency of the X-rays given off by an element was mathematically
related to the position of that element in the periodic table

he was able to publish a paper on the arrangement of the elements in the periodic
table based on their atomic numbers

atomic numbers 43, 61, 85, and 87 nuclear transmutations

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Discovery of Nuclear Transmutation

Ernest Rutherford Nuclear Transmutation
carried out a reaction in which one element was transformed into another element
alpha particles were bombarded from radium directed to the nitrogen nuclei
Nitrogen nuclei that reacted to the alpha particles formed some oxygen nuclei
both alpha particles & atomic nuclei are positively charged
atomic nuclei are often bombarded with neutrons in particle accelerators in
synthesizing new elements
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Discovery of the Missing Elements
Particle accelerators
atomic numbers 43, 61, 85, and 87
a device used to synthesize new elements using magnetic and electrical fields
it speeds up the protons to overcome the repulsion between the protons & the target
atomic nuclei
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Discovery of the Missing Elements
Ernest Lawrence
bombarded molybdenum (Z=42) with fast moving neutrons in a linear accelerator
create an element with atomic number 43 Technetium
first artificially created element & the lightest element that has no stable isotope
Astatine (85) first produced in 1940 Dale Corson K. Mackenzie Emilio Segre
synthesized by bombarding bismuth with fast-moving alpha particles in a cyclotron
radioactive “astatos” unstable
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Discovery of the Missing Elements

Promethium (61) Francium (87)

recovered from the discovered as a breakdown
leftovers of uranium fission product of uranium
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Synthesis of New Elements
Neptunium
first produced by Edwin McMillan
and Philip Abelson
used particle accelerator to bombard
uranium with neutrons
has a half – life of just 2.3 days
Plutonium (94)
created by Dr. Glenn Seaborg,
Edwin McMillan, Joseph Kennedy
and Philip Abelson
by deuteron bombardment of uranium
in a cyclotron
particles composed of a proton and a
neutron
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Synthesis of New Elements
Transuranium Elements

elements with atomic numbers greater than 92

Neptunium and Plutonium

discovered in the laboratory

prepared using nuclear reactors or particle accelerators
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LESSON 3 :
Lesson HOW THE PROPERTIES
OF MATTER RELATE
Proper TO THEIR CHEMICAL
STRUCTURE
 PHYSICAL SCIENCE
Polarity of Molecules
refers to the way atoms bond with one another

when one of the atoms has a

stronger attractive force on the
electrons in the link
polar molecule
charge imbalance
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Electronegativity Polarity of a Bond
an expression of an atom’s tendency to attract electrons in a chemical bond
find the difference in the electronegativities of the atoms involved
0.4 and 1.7 polar electrons will be taken from the
B
o
n
d
less electronegative element &
will have an spend all their time orbiting the
O
N
D
B

ionic trait more electronegative element

electrons will be shared equally
nonpolar
between the atoms & the bond
O
N
D
B

covalent
will not have a polar character
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PAULING ELECTRONEGATIVITY
VALUES
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EXAMPL
E
Determine what type of bond present between the following pairs of atoms by
determining their electronegativity difference.

Na Cl 3.0

ΔEN ¿ 1.0 −3.0 𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒄 𝒃𝒐𝒏𝒅

1.0 ¿ −2.0
¿ 2.0
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EXAMPL
E
Determine what type of bond present between the following pairs of atoms by
determining their electronegativity difference.

Cl Cl 3.0

ΔEN ¿ 3.0 −3.0 𝒏𝒐𝒏𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒃𝒐𝒏𝒅

3.0 ¿0
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EXAMPL
E
Determine what type of bond present between the following pairs of atoms by
determining their electronegativity difference.

H Cl 3.0

ΔEN ¿ 2.1− 3.0 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒃𝒐𝒏𝒅

2.1 ¿ −0.9
¿ 0.9
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Cl Cl 𝒏𝒐𝒏𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒃𝒐𝒏𝒅
ΔEN ¿ 3.0 −3.0
¿0

H Cl 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒃𝒐𝒏𝒅

ΔEN ¿ 2.1− 3.0

¿ −0.9 when 2 atoms share electrons unequally, a
polar covalent bond is produced
¿ 0.9
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H20
the total molecular polarity is determined by both the bond polarity and the
CC14 molecular shape in polyatomic compounds

NH3 the valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory would aid us in
determining the spatial arrangement of atoms in a polyatomic molecule in terms
CO2 of molecular geometry
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Step 1 Determine the molecule's central atom. (the least electronegative element)

Step 2 For the molecule, draw the proper Lewis dot structure

Step 3 Count the number of bonding pairs and non-bonding (or lone pairs) electrons
surrounding the center atom.
Step 4 Using the total number of electron pairs, determine the electron pair
orientation.

Step 4 Name the shape depending on the atoms' positions.

PHYSICAL SCIENCE