Formation of the Elements

and Nuclear Reactions

Elements are Formed in Different Ways in
our Universe
 Nucleosynthesis
• Nucleosynthesis is the process of element (nuclei) formation.
• Three types: Big Bang nucleosynthesis
Stellar (star) nucleosynthesis
Supernova nucleosynthesis
• Today, only stellar and supernova nucleosynthesis are
occurring in our universe.
• Element formation in our universe relies on nuclear fusion
reactions.
(fusion = come together)
 Nuclear Fusion
• In nuclear fusion, smaller nuclei collide together to
make larger nuclei, and energy is released in the
form of electromagnetic radiation.
• Requires extremely high temperatures and pressures
beyond those found on or within Earth. However,
these temperatures and pressures are found inside
stars and did occur during the initial formation of our
universe (during the Big Bang event).
• Fusion involves only the nuclei of atoms. At the
temperatures at which fusion can occur, matter
exists as a plasma. This is the state of matter where
the electrons have been stripped off of the atoms.
Plasma is basically a super high energy, electrically
charged gas.
• When nuclei collide, some of the mass of the nuclei
is converted to energy by Einstein’s famous
equation, E=mc2. Nuclear fusion releases a lot of
energy per gram of material; much more energy
than is released by burning a comparable amount of
 The Big Bang
• The Big Bang Theory is the most widely accepted
scientific theory about the origin of the universe. It is
supported by multiple lines of evidence.
• The “Big Bang” was a phenomenally energetic
explosion that initiated the expansion of the
universe.
• At the moment prior to the Big Bang explosion, all
matter and energy were compressed at a single point
(a singularity – a point of infinite density).
• We do not know what was before…..?
• The universe has been expanding ever since, with
galaxies moving farther and farther apart.
• Using the rates of expansion measured in the
universe and astronomical distances, the age of the
universe can be calculated back to the time of the Big
Bang. The age of the universe is calculated at about
13.7 billion years old. By contrast, our Sun and its
surrounding planets (i.e. our Solar System) is 4.65
billion years old.
 Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
• All Hydrogen and most Helium in the universe was produced during
the Big Bang Event, starting ~100 seconds after the explosion. A small
amount of Lithium was also produced.

• Big Bang nucleosynthesis ceased within a few minutes after the Big
Bang because the universe had expanded and cooled sufficiently by
then such that the temperatures and pressures were too low to
support additional nuclear fusion reactions.
 Stellar Nucleosynthesis
• A star is a very hot ball of gas (plasma). Stars create elements by combining lighter nuclei into
heavier nuclei via nuclear fusion reactions in their cores and releasing energy in the process.
They are natural nuclear reactors!
• Enormous temperatures (15,000,000 K), pressures, and densities of matter are needed to
initiate the fusion (thermonuclear) reactions which squeeze nuclei together and release energy.
• The basic nuclear reaction in the Sun converts hydrogen to helium and releases energy in the
form of electromagnetic radiation (see the basic fusion reaction below). This is why our Sun
shines!
• Our Sun is only large enough to fuse hydrogen into helium within its core.
 Stellar Nucleosynthesis
• Stars much larger than our Sun can fuse
heavier elements from lighter elements.
• These giant stars have an “onion layer”
structure.
• As you proceed deeper into the star,
temperatures and pressures increase,
and heavier and heavier nuclei are fused
together.
• The heaviest element that can be made
in a star is iron. Elements heavier than
iron have fusion reactions with
temperature and pressure requirements
greater than those that can occur within
the core of a giant star.
• Note: In the adjacent diagrams, the
term “burning” really means nuclear
fusion!
 Nuclear Fusion Requirements
(in stars)
Minimum Core Minimum Core Minimum Stellar
Fusion Fusion By-product
Temperature Density Mass*
Hydrogen He 13 million K 100 gm/cc 0.08 solar masses
Helium C, O 100 million K 100,000 gm/cc 0.5 solar masses
Carbon O, Ne, Mg, Na 500 million K 200,000 gm/cc 4 solar masses

Neon O, Mg 1.2 billion K 4 million gm/cc about 8 solar masses

Oxygen Mg, Si, S, P 1.5 billion K 10 million gm/cc about 8 solar masses

Silicon Si, S, Ar, Ca, Ti, Cr, Fe, around 3 billion K 30 million gm/cc about 8 solar masses
Ni

gm/cc = grams per cubic centimeter (units of density)

https://sites.uni.edu/morgans/astro/course/Notes/section2/fusion.html
 Supernova Nucleosynthesis
An exploded star
• Elements heavier than Iron (Z = 26) are made
(supernova)
primarily when giant stars explode in
supernovae.
• Even the largest stars do not have core
temperatures and pressures high enough to Relative Abundance of the Elements in our Universe
fuse iron into heavier elements. Therefore,
when a star runs out of nuclear fuel (lighter
nuclei) and can no longer undergo fusion
reactions, gravity causes the star to collapse.
The gravitational collapse triggers a
phenomenally large explosion called a
supernova. The explosion of the star
momentarily generates high enough
temperatures and pressures to cause nuclear
fusion reactions that make elements with
atomic numbers 27-92 (Cobalt to Uranium).
• Since only the largest stars can explode in
supernovae events, elements with atomic
numbers 27-92 are rarer than elements with
atomic numbers 1-26
(see abundance diagram to right)
 A summary…
(You are made of stardust from exploded stars)
 Nuclear Fission
• We have learned that elements form in the universe by nuclear fusion reactions which assemble larger nuclei by
forcing smaller nuclei together under tremendous temperatures and pressures.
• However, elements can also form when a large, unstable nucleus breaks apart in an attempt to achieve a more
stable, lower energy state.
• The splitting of a nucleus to form two or more smaller, more stable nuclei is called nuclear fission. (fission =
split)
• Fission may occur spontaneously (without energy being added) or it may be prompted by firing a nuclear bullet
(like a proton or neutron) at an unstable nucleus, as seen in the example below.
• Like fusion, fission also releases energy stored in the nucleus of an atom. However, not as much energy is
released from fission as from fusion. Still, the energy released per gram of material by fission is considerably
more than the energy released by burning a comparable amount of wood, oil, gasoline, etc. Fission of uranium-
235 atoms is used in nuclear power plants to produce energy.
• Fission also occurs naturally within the layers of the earth as radioactive elements in rocks spontaneously decay
to more stable elements, creating a natural source of heat within the earth. You also contain a small proportion
of radioactive isotopes within your body. These isotopes decay naturally, releasing radiation. Therefore, you are
slightly radioactive too! So is the banana you ate for breakfast!
Nuclear
bullet
 Radioactivity
• Radioactivity is the release of energy, in
the form of energetic particles and waves,
from the nuclei of unstable (radioactive)
isotopes. Radioactive atoms undergo
fission-type reactions in order to try to
become more stable nuclei with lower
energies. Radioactive atoms are called
radioisotopes.
• The nuclei of unstable, radioactive isotopes
have the wrong ratio of neutrons to
protons (n/p). Generally, it is too high.
When n/p of an isotope falls between 1 to
1.5, the nucleus is stable (within the “Band
of Stability” on a n0 vs. p+ plot). Outside of
that range, nuclei tend to be unstable and
break apart over time. This “breaking
apart” of unstable nuclei over time and the
accompanying release of nuclear particles
and energy is called radioactive decay.
 Types of Radioactive Decay – Alpha Decay
In alpha decay, an unstable
nucleus releases two
neutrons and two protons.
This is called an alpha ()
particle. It is equivalent to a
2He nuclei. Energy is also
4

released in the process.

As a result, the mass

number of the remaining
nucleus decreases by 4 and
the atomic number
decreases by 2. A new
element is formed in the
process!

Credit: Khan Academy

 Types of Radioactive Decay – Beta Decay
In beta decay of an unstable
nucleus, a neutron suddenly
changes to a proton, releasing an
electron, a ghostly, low mass
particle called a neutrino (not
pictured), and energy!

As a result, the atomic number of

the remaining nucleus increases
by 1 but the mass number does
not change. A new element is
formed!

Note: The released electron did

not come from outside the
nucleus. It came from inside the
nucleus. It is called a beta ()
particle. Credit: Khan Academy
 Types of Radioactive Decay – Gamma Decay
In gamma decay, an unstable
nucleus releases a high energy form
of electromagnetic radiation (light)
called a gamma () particle or a
gamma ray. This particle of light is
also known as a photon.

The energy is released as the

protons and neutrons in the
unstable nucleus reposition
themselves in an attempt to find a
lower energy arrangement.

Since no protons or neutrons are

released, the mass number and
atomic number of the nucleus
remain unchanged, and no new
element is formed. Gamma decay
usually accompanies alpha and beta
decay. Credit: Khan Academy
 Nuclear Reactions can be Represented by
• Fusion
Nuclear Equations
Making a
larger nucleus
from two or
more smaller
nuclei

• Fission
Making two or
more smaller
nuclei from a
larger nucleus
 Important Symbols Used in Nuclear
• To write a nuclear
Equations
reaction, you must Particle How written in a nuclear reaction
remember how to Proton 1 1
  p or H
read and use   1 1
isotope symbol
Neutron 1
notation   n
  0

Electron 0 0
(Beta particle) e or β
  -1 -1

• You must know the Alpha Particle 4 4

(Helium nuclei) 
symbols used for   2
or
2
He
various subatomic
particles like Gamma Particle or
Ray

protons, neutrons,  
(a massless packet of pure electromagnetic
radiation, a form of energy)
etc.
 Balancing Nuclear Reactions
Check the math on
these examples of
nuclear equations to
238
92 U see if the sums of the
mass numbers and
the atomic numbers
32
P are the same on each
15
side of the
equations.
10
5 B Can you figure out
which equations are
fission and which are
fusion?
 Transmutation
Transmutation is a general term for the changing of chemical element
or isotope to another by changing the number of protons and/or
neutrons. Fusion and fission reactions both qualify as transmutations.
The bombardment of a nucleus by a nuclear bullet in order to change it
into another element also counts as transmutation.
 Synthetic Elements
• Elements with atomic numbers Z ≥ 93 are
synthetic (man-made)
• These elements have been made in particle
accelerators, either by smashing smaller
nuclei together or else by shooting nuclear
bullets at large nuclei.
• These elements are all radioactive. They
decay over time to more stable elements,
releasing radiation (particles and energy)
from their nuclei. Some have very short
half-lives and have only existed for fractions
of a second.
• Some synthetic elements have uses for
mankind. Americium (Am) is used in smoke
detectors. Others have no current use but
were made during basic research to better
understand atomic nuclei and the forces
that hold them together. The heaviest
synthetic element has an atomic number of
118. It has no uses at present.