Non Destructive Testing

Unit # 2
Die penetrate test (liquid penetrate inspection), Principle, scope. Equipment &
techniques, Tests stations, Advantages, types of penetrants and developers,
Zyglo test, Illustrative examples and interpretation of defects. 5
Magnetic particle Inspection – scope and working principle, Ferro Magnetic
and Non-ferromagnetic materials, equipment & testing. Advantages,
limitations Interpretation of results, DC & AC magnetization, Skin Effect, use
of dye & wet powders for magna glow testing, different methods to generate
magnetic fields, Applications. 5
Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT)
• This is a method which can be employed for the detection of open-to-
surface discontinuities in any industrial product which is made from a
non-porous material.
• In this method a liquid penetrant is applied to the surface of the
product for a certain predetermined time after which the excess
penetrant is removed from the surface.
• The surface is then dried and a developer is applied to it.
• The penetrant which remains in the discontinuity is absorbed by the
developer to indicate the presence as well as the location, size and
nature of the discontinuity.
General procedure for liquid penetrant
inspection
• Cleaning the surface to be examined
• There should be no material such as plating, or coatings of oxide or loose dirt particles on surface. This is to
prevent false indications and to expose hidden discontinuities to the penetrant.
• Solid contaminant such as carbon, engine varnish, paints and similar materials should be removed by vapour
blast, chemical dip or other acceptable methods.
• Methods such as shot blasting, emery cloth, wire brushing or metal scrapping should not be used, especially
for soft materials, since these cleaning methods will cover up defects by cold working the surface.
• Contamination can occur due to the presence of lubricants, protective oils, metal dust polymerization,
oxidation, carbonaceous deposits, protective paints, etc. Various solvents have been developed by different
companies to remove them.
• Contamination due to inorganic corrosion products, heat treatment scale, operationally formed refractory
oxides, etc. is conveniently removed by abrasive blasting with glass beads, etc. combined with a chemical
cleaning.
• Whichever method is employed the use of trichloroethylene vapor degreasing as a final stage is strongly
recommended.
inspection
• Drying the surface
• If, for any reason, separations are filled with liquid, they will prevent entry of
penetrant, hence drying is an essential operation.
• It should be realized that although the surface may seem dry, separations may
still be filled with liquid.
• The lesson is that improper drying may be worse than no cleaning, because the
remaining solvent may present a barrier to the penetrant too.
• If penetrant liquid does reach into the separation, it will be diluted by the
solvent, and this also makes the treatment less effective.
inspection
• Application of penetrant
• The penetrant is applied with the help of a brush or by spray or by dipping the
test piece into a bath of penetrant.
• After this a certain residence time or 'dwell time' is allowed for the penetrant
to seep into discontinuities.
• The residence time varies with the temperature, the type of penetrant, the
nature of the discontinuity and the material of the test specimen. It usually
varies between 5 and 30 minutes. In special cases it may be as long as one
hour.
inspection
• Removal of superfluous penetrant
• The excess penetrant on the surface should be removed to obtain optimum
contrast and to prevent misleading indications.
• The appropriate remover is usually recommended by the manufacturer of the
penetrant. Some penetrants are water washable while others need application
of an emulsifier before they can be removed with water. The removal method
is to use a sponge or water spray. There are special penetrant removers which
are essentially solvents.
• It is most important that removal of the penetrant is restricted to the surface
and that no penetrant is washed out of the flaws which can easily happen when
the cleaning is too rigorous.
inspection
• Removal of superfluous penetrant
• When the surface is smooth washing can be less intensive than for rough
surfaces; in the latter case there is a definite risk that penetrant may be washed
out of small imperfections.
• A general criterion for the removal operation is that it must be fast and should
be prolonged long enough to make the surface almost clean.
• It is better to leave small traces of penetrant on the surface than to carry out
excessive cleaning.
• When removing fluorescent penetrants, the effect of the treatment should
preferably be watched under black light.
inspection
• Drying the surface
• The surface can be dried with a dry cloth or an air blower.
• Drying is generally needed to prepare the surface for the application of a
powder developer, which would otherwise clot at wet places.
• It also decreases the adverse effect of insufficiently removed traces of
penetrant.
• Here again excess should be avoided. Penetrant liquid left in flaws should not
be allowed to dry, and this can happen when hot air is used for drying.
inspection
• Application of developer
• Developers are usually of two types namely dry and wet developer.
• Dry developer consists of a dry, light colored powdery material.
• It is applied to the surface after removal of excess penetrant and drying of the
part.
• It can be applied either by immersing the parts in a tank containing powder, or
by brushing it on with a paint brush (usually not a desirable technique) or by
blowing the powder onto the surface of the part.
inspection
• Wet developer consists of a powdered material suspended in a suitable liquid
such as water or a volatile solvent.
• It is applied to the parts immediately following the water washing operation.
Developers should be such that they provide a white coating that contrasts
with the colored dye penetrant, and draw the penetrant from the discontinuities
to the surface of the developer film, thus revealing defects.
• The dry developers are applied generally with fluorescent penetrants. They are
applied just prior to the visual inspection process.
• The wet developers are also used in connection with fluorescent penetrants.
They are applied after the washing operation and before the drying operation.
inspection
• The solvent based developers are generally used with the visible dye-
penetrants. They are applied after cleaning off extra penetrant.
• A short time should be allowed for development of indications after the
developer has been applied. This time should be approximately one half that
allowed for penetration.
• Developer coating is removed after inspection by water stream, spray nozzle,
brush, etc.
• The powder concentration of the liquid developer should be carefully
controlled to obtain the required thin and uniform layer over the surface.
inspection
• Observation and interpretation of indications
• An indication in the developer will become visible after a certain lapse of
time. Because all penetrant inspection methods rely upon the seeing of an
indication by the inspector, the lighting provided for this visual examination is
extremely important.
• For best results, inspection for fluorescent indications should be done in a
darkened area using black light.
• For the interpretation of indications, it is very important to observe their
characteristics at the very moment they appear. As soon as the flaws have bled
out the indications may run to larger spots, depending on size and depth, and
at this stage it is difficult to derive characteristic information from a flaw.
inspection
• A brief guide to the penetrant indications is given here.
• A crack usually shows up as a continuous line of penetrant indication.
• A cold shut on the surface of a casting also appears as a continuous line, generally a
relatively narrow one.
• A forging lap may also cause a continuous line of penetrant indication.
• Rounded areas of penetrant indication signify gas holes or pit holes in castings.
• Deep crater cracks in welds frequently show up as rounded indications.
• Penetrant indications in the form of small dots result from a porous condition. These may
denote small pin holes or excessively coarse grains in castings or may be caused by a
shrinkage cavity.
inspection
• A brief guide to the penetrant indications is given here.
• With fluorescent penetrants, the whole surface may glow feebly. With dye penetrants, the
background may be pink instead of white. Depth of defects will be indicated by richness
of color and speed of bleed out.
• The time required for an indication to develop is inversely proportional to the volume of
the discontinuity.
Penetrant Materials
• Penetrant materials come in two basic types. These types are listed below:
• Type 1 - Fluorescent Penetrants
• Type 2 - Visible Penetrants
• Fluorescent penetrants contain a dye or several dyes that fluoresce when exposed to
ultraviolet radiation.
• Visible penetrants contain a red dye that provides high contrast against the white developer
background.
• Fluorescent penetrant systems are more sensitive than visible penetrant systems because the
eye is drawn to the glow of the fluorescing indication.
• However, visible penetrants do not require a darkened area and an ultraviolet light in order
to make an inspection. Visible penetrants are also less vulnerable to contamination from
things such as cleaning fluid that can significantly reduce the strength of a fluorescent
indication.
Penetrant Materials
• Penetrants are then classified by the method used to remove the excess
penetrant from the part. The four methods are listed below:
• Method A - Water Washable
• Method B - Post-Emulsifiable, Lipophilic
• Method C - Solvent Removable
• Method D - Post-Emulsifiable, Hydrophilic
Penetrant Materials
• Water washable (Method A) penetrants can be removed from the part by rinsing
with water alone. These penetrants contain an emulsifying agent (detergent) that
makes it possible to wash the penetrant from the part surface with water alone.
Water washable penetrants are sometimes referred to as self-emulsifying systems.
• Post-emulsifiable penetrants come in two varieties, lipophilic and hydrophilic.
• In post-emulsifiers, lipophilic systems (Method B), the penetrant is oil soluble and
interacts with the oil-based emulsifier to make removal possible.
• Post-emulsifiable, hydrophilic systems (Method D), use an emulsifier that is a
water soluble detergent which lifts the excess penetrant from the surface of the part
with a water wash. Solvent removable penetrants require the use of a solvent to
remove the penetrant from the part.
Penetrant Materials
• Penetrants are then classified based on the strength or detectability of
the indication that is produced for a number of very small and tight
fatigue cracks. The five sensitivity levels are shown below:
• Level ½ - Ultra Low Sensitivity
• Level 1 - Low Sensitivity
• Level 2 - Medium Sensitivity
• Level 3 - High Sensitivity
• Level 4 - Ultra-High Sensitivity
Penetrant Materials
• The major US government and industry specifications currently rely on the US Air
Force Materials Laboratory at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base to classify penetrants
into one of the five sensitivity levels.
• This procedure uses titanium and Inconel specimens with small surface cracks
produced in low cycle fatigue bending to classify penetrant systems. The brightness
of the indication produced is measured using a photometer. The sensitivity levels
and the test procedure used can be found in Military Specification MIL-I-25135 and
Aerospace Material Specification 2644, Penetrant Inspection Materials.
• An interesting note about the sensitivity levels is that only four levels were
originally planned. However, when some penetrants were judged to have
sensitivities significantly less than most others in the level 1 category, the ½ level
was created.
Emulsifiers
• When removal of the penetrant from a defect due to over-washing of
the part is a concern, a post-emulsifiable penetrant system can be used.
Post-emulsifiable penetrants require a separate emulsifier to break the
penetrant down and make it water-washable. Most penetrant
inspection specifications classify penetrant systems into four methods
of excess penetrant removal. These are listed below:
• Method A: Water-Washable
• Method B: Post-Emulsifiable, Lipophilic
• Method C: Solvent Removable
• Method D: Post-Emulsifiable, Hydrophilic
Emulsifiers
• Method C relies on a solvent cleaner to remove the penetrant from the
part being inspected.
• Method A has emulsifiers built into the penetrant liquid that makes it
possible to remove the excess penetrant with a simple water wash.
• Method B and D penetrants require an additional processing step
where a separate emulsification agent is applied to make the excess
penetrant more removable with a water wash.
Developers
• The role of the developer is to pull the trapped penetrant material out of defects
and spread it out on the surface of the part so it can be seen by an inspector.
• The fine developer particles both reflect and refract the incident ultraviolet
light, allowing more of it to interact with the penetrant, causing more efficient
fluorescence.
• The developer also allows more light to be emitted through the same
mechanism. This is why indications are brighter than the penetrant itself under
UV light.
• Another function that some developers perform is to create a white background
so there is a greater degree of contrast between the indication and the
surrounding background.
Developer Forms
• The AMS 2644 and Mil-I-25135 classify developers into six standard
forms. These forms are listed below:
• Form a - Dry Powder
• Form b - Water Soluble
• Form c - Water Suspendable
• Form d - Nonaqueous Type 1 Fluorescent (Solvent Based)
• Form e - Nonaqueous Type 2 Visible Dye (Solvent Based)
• Form f - Special Applications
Developer Forms
• Dry Powder
• Dry powder developer is generally considered to be the least sensitive but it is
inexpensive to use and easy to apply.
• Dry developers are white, fluffy powders that can be applied to a thoroughly dry
surface in a number of ways.
• The developer can be applied by dipping parts in a container of developer, or by
using a puffer to dust parts with the developer.
• Parts can also be placed in a dust cabinet where the developer is blown around
and allowed to settle on the part.
• Electrostatic powder spray guns are also available to apply the developer. The
goal is to allow the developer to come in contact with the whole inspection area.
Developer Forms
• Water Soluble
• As the name implies, water soluble developers consist of a group of chemicals that are
dissolved in water and form a developer layer when the water is evaporated away.
• The best method for applying water soluble developers is by spraying it on the part.
• The part can be wet or dry.
• Dipping, pouring, or brushing the solution on to the surface is sometimes used but these
methods are less desirable.
• Aqueous developers contain wetting agents that cause the solution to function much like
dilute hydrophilic emulsifier and can lead to additional removal of entrapped penetrant.
• Drying is achieved by placing the wet but well drained part in a recirculating, warm air
dryer with the temperature held between 70 and 75°F. If the parts are not dried quickly,
the indications will be blurred and indistinct.
• Properly developed parts will have an even, pale white coating over the entire surface.
Developer Forms
• Water Suspendable
• Water suspendable developers consist of insoluble developer particles
suspended in water.
• Water suspendable developers require frequent stirring or agitation to keep the
particles from settling out of suspension.
• Water suspendable developers are applied to parts in the same manner as water
soluble developers.
• Parts coated with a water suspendable developer must be forced dried just as
parts coated with a water soluble developer are forced dried.
• The surface of a part coated with a water suspendable developer will have a
slightly translucent white coating.
Developer Forms
• Nonaqueous
• Nonaqueous developers suspend the developer in a volatile solvent and are
typically applied with a spray gun.
• Nonaqueous developers are commonly distributed in aerosol spray cans for
portability.
• The solvent tends to pull penetrant from the indications by solvent action.
Since the solvent is highly volatile, forced drying is not required.
• A nonaqueous developer should be applied to a thoroughly dried part to form a
slightly translucent white coating.
Developer Forms
• Special Applications
• Plastic or lacquer developers are special developers that are primarily used
when a permanent record of the inspection is required.
Nature of the Defect
• The nature of the defect can have a large affect on sensitivity of a liquid penetrant
inspection. Sensitivity is defined as the smallest defect that can be detected with a
high degree of reliability.
• Typically, the crack length at the sample surface is used to define size of the defect.
• A survey of any probability-of-detection curve for penetrant inspection will quickly
lead one to the conclusion that crack length has a definite affect on sensitivity.
However, the crack length alone does not determine whether a flaw will be seen or
go undetected.
• The volume of the defect is likely to be the more important feature. The flaw must
be of sufficient volume so that enough penetrant will bleed back out to a size that is
detectable by the eye or that will satisfy the dimensional thresholds of fluorescence.
• It is an
example of
fluorescent
penetrant
inspection
probability of
detection
(POD) curve
from the
Nondestructi
ve Evaluation
(NDE)
Capabilities
Data Book.
Penetrant inspections are more effective at
finding
• small round defects than small linear defects. Small round defects
are generally easier to detect for several reasons.
• First, they are typically volumetric defects that can trap significant amounts of
penetrant.
• Second, round defects fill with penetrant faster than linear defects.
• One research effort found that elliptical flaw with length to width ratio of 100,
will take the penetrant nearly 10 times longer to fill than a cylindrical flaw
with the same volume.
• deeper flaws than shallow flaws. Deeper flaws will trap more
penetrant than shallow flaws, and they are less prone to over washing.
Penetrant inspections are more effective at
finding
• flaws with a narrow opening at the surface than wide open
flaws. Flaws with narrow surface openings are less prone to over
washing.
• flaws on smooth surfaces than on rough surfaces. The surface
roughness of the part primarily affects the removability of a penetrant.
Rough surfaces tend to trap more penetrant in the various tool marks,
scratches, and pits that make up the surface. Removing the penetrant
from the surface of the part is more difficult and a higher level of
background fluorescence or over washing may occur.
Inspecting Welds with Liquid Penetrants
• Inspecting Welds with Liquid Penetrants
Zyglo test
Advantages
• The method has high sensitivity to small surface discontinuities.
• The method has few material limitations, i.e. metallic and nonmetallic, magnetic
and nonmagnetic, and conductive and nonconductive materials may be inspected.
• Large areas and large volumes of parts/materials can be inspected rapidly and at
low cost.
• Parts with complex geometric shapes are routinely inspected.
• Indications are produced directly on the surface of the part and constitute a visual
representation of the flaw.
• Aerosol spray cans make penetrant materials very portable.
• Penetrant materials and associated equipment are relatively inexpensive.
Disadvantages
• Only surface breaking defects can be detected.
• Only materials with a relatively nonporous surface can be inspected.
• Precleaning is critical since contaminants can mask defects.
• Metal smearing from machining, grinding, and grit or vapor blasting must be
removed prior to LPI.
• The inspector must have direct access to the surface being inspected.
• Surface finish and roughness can affect inspection sensitivity.
• Multiple process operations must be performed and controlled.
• Post cleaning of acceptable parts or materials is required.
• Chemical handling and proper disposal is required.
Magnetic particle Inspection
• Magnetic particle Inspection – scope and working principle, Ferro
Magnetic and Non-ferromagnetic materials, equipment & testing.
Advantages, limitations Interpretation of results, DC & AC
magnetization, Skin Effect, use of dye & wet powders for magna glow
testing, different methods to generate magnetic fields, Applications.
Magnetic particle Inspection
• Magnetic particle inspection (MPI) is a nondestructive testing method
used for defect detection
• MPI uses magnetic fields and small magnetic particles (i.e. iron
filings) to detect flaws in components.
• The only requirement from an inspectability standpoint is that the
component being inspected must be made of a ferromagnetic material
such as iron, nickel, cobalt, or some of their alloys.
Basic Principles
• It can be considered as a combination of two nondestructive
testing methods: magnetic flux leakage testing and visual testing.
• The first step in a magnetic particle inspection is to magnetize the
component that is to be inspected.
• If any defects on or near the surface are present, the defects will
create a leakage field.
• After the component has been magnetized, iron particles, either in
a dry or wet suspended form, are applied to the surface of the
magnetized part.
• The particles will be attracted and cluster at the flux leakage
fields, thus forming a visible indication that the inspector can
detect.
Diamagnetic, Paramagnetic, and
Ferromagnetic Materials
• When a material is placed within a magnetic field, the magnetic forces
of the material's electrons will be affected. This effect is known as
Faraday's Law of Magnetic Induction.
• However, materials can react quite differently to the presence of an
external magnetic field. This reaction is dependent on a number of
factors, such as the atomic and molecular structure of the material, and
the net magnetic field associated with the atoms.
• The magnetic moments associated with atoms have three origins.
These are the electron motion, the change in motion caused by an
external magnetic field, and the spin of the electrons.
• In most atoms, electrons occur in pairs. Electrons in a pair spin in
opposite directions.
• So, when electrons are paired together, their opposite spins cause their
magnetic fields to cancel each other.
• Therefore, no net magnetic field exists.
• Alternately, materials with some unpaired electrons will have a net
magnetic field and will react more to an external field.
• Most materials can be classified as diamagnetic, paramagnetic or
ferromagnetic.
• Diamagnetic materials have a weak, negative susceptibility to magnetic
fields. Diamagnetic materials are slightly repelled by a magnetic field and the
material does not retain the magnetic properties when the external field is
removed.
• Paramagnetic materials have a small, positive susceptibility to magnetic
fields. These materials are slightly attracted by a magnetic field and the
material does not retain the magnetic properties when the external field is
removed.
• Ferromagnetic materials have a large, positive susceptibility to an external
magnetic field. They exhibit a strong attraction to magnetic fields and are able
to retain their magnetic properties after the external field has been removed.
Quantifying Magnetic Properties
• The units for magnetic field strength H is ampere/meter. A magnetic
field strength of 1 ampere/meter is produced at the center of a single
circular conductor with a one-meter diameter carrying a steady current
of 1 ampere.
• The number of magnetic lines of force cutting through a plane of a
given area at a right angle is known as the magnetic flux density, B.
• The flux density or magnetic induction has the tesla as its unit. One
tesla is equal to 1 Newton/(A/m).
Quantifying Magnetic Properties
• The total number of lines of magnetic force in a material is called magnetic
flux, f. The strength of the flux is determined by the number of magnetic
domains that are aligned within a material. The total flux is simply the flux
density applied over an area. Flux carries the unit of a weber, which is simply a
tesla- meter2.
• The magnetization is a measure of the extent to which an object is magnetized.
SI Units SI Units CGS Units

Quantity
(Somerfield) (Kennelly) (Gaussian)
Field strength H A/m A/m oersteds
Flux Density
B tesla tesla gauss
(Magnetic Induction)
Flux f weber weber maxwell
Magnetization M A/m - erg/Oe-cm 3
The Hysteresis Loop and Magnetic
Properties
• A hysteresis loop shows
the relationship between
the induced magnetic flux
density (B) and the
magnetizing force (H).
The Hysteresis Loop and Magnetic
Properties
• Retentivity - A measure of the residual flux density corresponding to the saturation induction of a
magnetic material. In other words, it is a material's ability to retain a certain amount of residual
magnetic field when the magnetizing force is removed after achieving saturation. (The value of B at
point b on the hysteresis curve.)
• Residual Magnetism or Residual Flux - the magnetic flux density that remains in a material when
the magnetizing force is zero. Note that residual magnetism and retentivity are the same when the
material has been magnetized to the saturation point. However, the level of residual magnetism may
be lower than the retentivity value when the magnetizing force did not reach the saturation level.
• Coercive Force - The amount of reverse magnetic field which must be applied to a magnetic material
to make the magnetic flux return to zero. (The value of H at point c on the hysteresis curve.)
• Permeability, µ- A property of a material that describes the ease with which a magnetic flux is
established in the component.
• Reluctance - Is the opposition that a ferromagnetic material shows to the establishment of a magnetic
field. Reluctance is analogous to the resistance in an electrical circuit.
Permeability
• permeability (m is a material property that describes the ease with which a
magnetic flux is established in a component. It is the ratio of the flux
density (B) created within a material to the magnetizing field (H) and is
represented by the following equation:
m =B/H
• It is clear that this equation describes the slope of the curve at any point on
the hysteresis loop.
• The maximum permeability is the point where the slope of the B/H curve
for the unmagnetized material is the greatest. This point is often taken as
the point where a straight line from the origin is tangent to the B/H curve.
m(relative) = m (material) /m (air)
where: m (air) = 1.256 x 10-6 H/m
Permeability
• Relative to other materials, a material with a
wider hysteresis loop has:
• Lower Permeability
• Higher Retentivity
• Higher Coercivity
• Higher Reluctance
• Higher Residual Magnetism
• Relative to other materials, a material with the
narrower hysteresis loop has:
• Higher Permeability
• Lower Retentivity
• Lower Coercivity
• Lower Reluctance
• Lower Residual Magnetism.
Portable Magnetizing Equipment
for Magnetic Particle Inspection
• primary requirements for detecting a defect in a ferromagnetic
material is that the magnetic field induced in the part must intercept
the defect at a 45 to 90-degree angle. Flaws that are normal (90
degrees) to the magnetic field will produce the strongest indications
because they disrupt more of the magnet flux.
• Permanent magnets
• Permanent magnets are sometimes used for magnetic
particle inspection as the source of magnetism. The two
primary types of permanent magnets are bar magnets and
horseshoe (yoke) magnets.
• Some permanent magnets require over 50 pounds of force
to remove them from the surface. Because it is difficult to
remove the magnets from the component being inspected,
and sometimes difficult and dangerous to place the
magnets, their use is not particularly popular.
• Electromagnets
• Today, most of the equipment used to create the magnetic field used in
MPI is based on electromagnetism. That is, using an electrical current
to produce the magnetic field. An electromagnetic yoke is a very
common piece of equipment that is used to establish a magnetic field.
It is basically made by wrapping an electrical coil around a piece of
soft ferromagneticsteel. A switch is included in the electrical circuit so
that the current and, therefore, the magnetic field can be turned on and
off. They can be powered with alternating current from a wall socket
or by direct current from a battery pack.
• Prods
• Prods are handheld electrodes that are pressed against the surface of
the component being inspected to make contact for passing electrical
current through the metal. The current passing between the prods
creates a circular magnetic field around the prods that can be used in
magnetic particle inspection. Prods are typically made from copper
and have an insulated handle to help protect the operator. One of the
prods has a trigger switch so that the current can be quickly and easily
turned on and off. Sometimes the two prods are connected by any
insulator (as shown in the image) to facilitate one hand operation.
• Portable Coils and Conductive Cables
• Coils and conductive cables are used to establish a longitudinal
magnetic field within a component. When a preformed coil is used,
the component is placed against the inside surface on the coil. Coils
typically have three or five turns of a copper cable within the
molded frame. A foot switch is often used to energize the coil.
Conductive cables are wrapped around the component. The number
of wraps is determined by the magnetizing force needed and of
course, the length of the cable. Normally, the wraps are kept as close
together as possible. When using a coil or cable wrapped into a coil,
amperage is usually expressed in ampere-turns. Ampere-turns is the
amperage shown on the amp meter times the number of turns in the
coil.
• Portable Power Supplies
• Portable power supplies are used to provide the necessary electricity to
the prods, coils or cables. Power supplies are commercially available in a
variety of sizes. Small power supplies generally provide up to 1,500A of
half-wave direct current or alternating current when used with a 4.5
meter 0000 cable. They are small and light enough to be carried and
operate on either 120V or 240V electrical service. When more power is
necessary, mobile power supplies can be used. These units come with
wheels so that they can be rolled where needed. These units also operate
on 120V or 240V electrical service and can provide up to 6,000A of AC
or half-wave DC when 9 meters or less of 0000 cable is used.
Stationary Equipment for Magnetic
Particle Inspection
• wet horizontal (bench) unit
• The units have head and tail stocks (similar to a lathe)
with electrical contact that the part can be clamped
between.
• A circular magnetic field is produced with direct
magnetization.
• Most units also have a movable coil that can be moved
into place so the indirect magnetization can be used to
produce a longitudinal magnetic field.
• Either the visible or fluorescent particles can be used.
Particle Inspection
• To inspect a part using a head-shot, the part is clamped
between two electrical contact pads.
• The magnetic solution, called a bath, is then flowed over the
surface of the part.
• The bath is then interrupted and a magnetizing current is
applied to the part for a short duration, typically 0.5 to 1.5
seconds.
• A circular field flowing around the circumference of the part is
created. Leakage fields from defects then attract the particles
to form indications.
Particle Inspection
• When the coil is used to establish a longitudinal magnetic field
within the part, the part is placed on the inside surface of the
coil.
• Just as done with a head shot, the bath is then flowed over the
surface of the part.
• A magnetizing current is applied to the part for a short
duration, typically 0.5 to 1.5 seconds, just after coverage with
the bath is interrupted.
• Leakage fields from defects attract the particles to form visible
indications.
Magnetizing Current
• Direct Current
• Direct current (DC) flows continuously in one direction at a constant voltage.
A battery is the most common source of direct current. As previously
mentioned, current is said to flow from the positive to the negative terminal.
In actuality, the electrons flow in the opposite direction. DC is very desirable
when inspecting for subsurface defects because DC generates a magnetic field
that penetrates deeper into the material. In ferromagnetic materials, the
magnetic field produced by DC generally penetrates the entire cross-section of
the component. Conversely, the field produced using alternating current is
concentrated in a thin layer at the surface of the component.
Magnetizing Current
• Alternating Current
• Alternating current (AC) reverses in direction at a rate of 50 or 60 cycles per
second. In the United States, 60 cycle current is the commercial norm but 50
cycle current is common in many countries. Since AC is readily available in
most facilities, it is convenient to make use of it for magnetic particle inspection.
However, when AC is used to induce a magnetic field in ferromagnetic
materials, the magnetic field will be limited to narrow region at the surface of
the component. This phenomenon is known as the "skin effect" and occurs
because the changing magnetic field generates eddy currents in the test object.
The eddy currents produce a magnetic field that opposes the primary field, thus
reducing the net magnetic flux below the surface. Therefore, it is recommended
that AC be used only when the inspection is limited to surface defects.
Magnetizing Current
• Rectified Alternating Current
• Clearly, the skin effect limits the use of AC since many inspection
applications call for the detection of subsurface defects. However, the
convenient access to AC, drives its use beyond surface flaw inspections.
Luckily, AC can be converted to current that is very much like DC
through the process of rectification. With the use of rectifiers, the
reversing AC can be converted to a one directional current. The three
commonly used types of rectified current are described below.
• Half Wave Rectified Alternating Current (HWAC)
• Full Wave Rectified Alternating Current (FWAC) (Single Phase)
• Three Phase Full Wave Rectified Alternating Current
Magnetization of Materials
• Magnetic Field Using an Electric Current
• Direct as well as alternating currents are used to magnetize components for
the magnetic particle test.
• The choice of current depends on the strength, direction and distribution of
the desired magnetic field.
• A magnetic field produced by direct current (DC) penetrates the cross-section
of a component, whereas the field produced by an alternating current (AC) is
largely confined to the surface of the component due to the skin effect.
• The direct current obtained from a rectified AC is invariably used for the
magnetic particle test.
• Surge Method
• If a surge of high current is passed through a ferromagnetic material
for a short duration and the current is then reduced to its steady lower
value, the component is magnetized to its saturation value. It is not
possible to attain this high state of magnetization with a lower steady
current.
• Induction Method
• This method is used to magnetize ring shaped components. Here, AC

or DC is passed through the primary winding of a transformer, where
the ring-shaped component forms a single turn secondary as shown in
Fig.
• The magnetic field is produced because of induced current in the part.
This type of magnetization helps in the detection of circumferential
defects.
• Solenoid Coil Method
• Solenoids carrying current produce a magnetic field along the axis of the
solenoid as shown in Fig. When a part is placed inside a solenoid coil, a
magnetic field is created parallel to the solenoid axis. The field strength inside
the solenoid is proportional to the product of current (Amps) and the number
of turns of the coil. The strength can be varied either by varying the current or
the number of turns.
• Alternating Current Method
• A 50-60 cycle frequency AC from commercial power lines is directly used
for magnetization in this method. only single phase is used and voltage is
stepped up by using suitable transformers.
• Depending upon the requirements of magnetization, size and shape of the
components, the following arrangements are employed:
• Circular magnetization
• Longitudinal magnetization
• Coil magnetization
• Prod magnetization
• Yoke magnetization
Methods of demagnetization
Dry Particle Inspection
• In this magnetic particle testing technique, dry particles are dusted
onto the surface of the test object as the item is magnetized. Dry
particle inspection is well suited for the inspections conducted on
rough surfaces. When an electromagnetic yoke is used, the AC or half
wave DC current creates a pulsating magnetic field that provides
mobility to the powder.
• Steps in performing an inspection using dry particles
• Prepare the part surface - the surface should be relatively clean but this is not
as critical as it is with liquid penetrant inspection. The surface must be free of
grease, oil or other moisture that could keep particles from moving freely. A thin
layer of paint, rust or scale will reduce test sensitivity but can sometimes be left
in place with adequate results. Specifications often allow up to 0.003 inch (0.076
mm) of a nonconductive coating (such as paint) and 0.001 inch max (0.025 mm)
of a ferromagnetic coating (such as nickel) to be left on the surface. Any loose
dirt, paint, rust or scale must be removed.
• Apply the magnetizing force - Use permanent magnets, an electromagnetic
yoke, prods, a coil or other means to establish the necessary magnetic flux.
• Dust on the dry magnetic particles - Dust on a light layer of magnetic particles.
• Steps in performing an inspection using dry particles
• Gently blow off the excess powder - With the magnetizing force still applied,
remove the excess powder from the surface with a few gentle puffs of dry air.
The force of the air needs to be strong enough to remove the excess particles
but not strong enough to dislodge particles held by a magnetic flux leakage
field.
• Terminate the magnetizing force - If the magnetic flux is being generated
with an electromagnet or an electromagnetic field, the magnetizing force
should be terminated. If permanent magnets are being used, they can be left in
place.
• Inspect for indications - Look for areas where the magnetic particles are
clustered.
Wet Suspension Inspection
• Wet suspension magnetic particle inspection, more commonly known as wet
magnetic particle inspection, involves applying the particles while they are
suspended in a liquid carrier. Wet magnetic particle inspection is most commonly
performed using a stationary, wet, horizontal inspection unit but suspensions are
also available in spray cans for use with an electromagnetic yoke.
• A wet inspection has several advantages over a dry inspection. First, all of the
surfaces of the component can be quickly and easily covered with a relatively
uniform layer of particles. Second, the liquid carrier provides mobility to the
particles for an extended period of time, which allows enough particles to float to
small leakage fields to form a visible indication. Therefore, wet inspection is
considered best for detecting very small discontinuities on smooth surfaces.
• Steps in performing an inspection using wet suspensions
• Prepare the part surface - Just as is required with dry particle inspections, the
surface should be relatively clean. The surface must be free of grease, oil and other
moisture that could prevent the suspension from wetting the surface and preventing
the particles from moving freely. A thin layer of paint, rust or scale will reduce test
sensitivity, but can sometimes be left in place with adequate results. Specifications
often allow up to 0.003 inch (0.076 mm) of a nonconductive coating (such as
paint) and 0.001 inch max (0.025 mm) of a ferromagnetic coating (such as nickel)
to be left on the surface. Any loose dirt, paint, rust or scale must be removed.
• Apply the suspension - The suspension is gently sprayed or flowed over the
surface of the part. Usually, the stream of suspension is diverted from the part just
before the magnetizing field is applied.
• Steps in performing an inspection using wet suspensions
• Apply the magnetizing force - The magnetizing force should be applied
immediately after applying the suspension of magnetic particles. When using a
wet horizontal inspection unit, the current is applied in two or three short busts
(1/2 second) which helps to improve particle mobility.
• Inspect for indications - Look for areas where the magnetic particles are
clustered. Surface discontinuities will produce a sharp indication. The
indications from subsurface flaws will be less defined and lose definition as
depth increases.
• Fluorescent method: In this method, magnetic particles are coated with a fluorescent
dye and used where the surface finish is fine. The components are examined under
ultraviolet light (A = 3650 A). The method is particularly useful in locating
discontinuities in comers, key ways, deep holes etc.
• Residual method: In this method, the magnetizing field is withdrawn after magnetizing
the component. Magnetic particles are applied on the surface of the component after the
field is withdrawn. The method is applicable for components that show high retentivity.
It is essential that residual magnetism be strong enough to produce a leakage field at
discontinuities.
• Continuous method: In this method, a magnetic powder is applied on the component
surface when the magnetic field is still on. To produce a meaningful indication during
the test, the level of magnetization must be sufficient to produce a strong leakage field
to attract and hold fine magnetic particles.
Interpretation and evaluation
• After magnetization and the application of magnetic particles, the surface of the
component is examined.
• In case non-fluorescent particles are used, the examination is carried out under
daylight with the help of a magnifying glass at an illumination of 500 lux.
• If artificial light is used, this illumination can be achieved by a 80 W fluorescent
tube or a tungsten filament lamp of 100 W.
• The fluorescent method makes use of dyes that glow when exposed to black light.
• While examining the component one has to be careful in distinguishing flaw
indications from false indications.
• Some of the defects and their observed indications are discussed next.
• Nonmetallic inclusions: Insufficient cleaning of the metal during or after
melting gives rise to this defect. These defects may or may not show a sharp
indication, depending on their severity. Generally, these defects show up as
stringers running along the axis of the product or along the fibers in the
forging.
• Seams: These defects are observed in rolled products and are formed during
rolling due to the presence of laps, surface tears or scales. These defects are
generally elongated. A single, deep seam shows a sharp indication but
clusters of tiny seams may give misleading a indication.
• Cooling cracks: This defect occurs in steel with high hardenability, such as
tool steel. Cracks are deep and give a strong indication along the grain fibers.
• Laminations: These are usually found in plates and are due to the
separation of layers, due to the presence of non-metallic film. These defects
are parallel to the surface and indications occur only at the sides and cut
portions of the plate.
• Piping: These are internal defects and the magnetic particle test does not
usually reveal them unless the defects are present at the end of the part.
Indications at the end of the part represent a cross-section of the piping.
• Forging laps: These are folds of metal squeezed together during forging.
They have irregular contours and occur at right angles to the direction of
metal flow. The indications of forging laps are not well defined due to a
weak leakage field.
• Flash line cracks: These are associated with and run along the flash
line of the forging. They are deep and give strong indications.
• Forging bursts: These are ruptures that occur when forging is carried
out at a temperature that is too cold or too hot. Bursts may be on the
surface or internal. They consist of numerous small and large cracks
all over the forging and are more concentrated at thicker regions of the
forgings.
• Flakes: The reason for the occurrence of flakes is the evolution of
dissolved gases. Flakes are usually observed on machined surfaces.
• Hot tears and thermal cracking: These are surface cracks occurring due to
non-uniform cooling from the casting stage or during heat treatment. In
this case, indications are well defined as cracks and are sharp and deep.
• Gas porosity: The magnetic particle test sometimes locates gas porosity
and sub-surface blowholes. The indications are not sharp. Some
experience is needed to identify these defects.
• Weld cracks and other weld defects: Longitudinal or transverse cracks and
parent metal cracks give sharp indications and are easy to detect.
However, weld defects such as porosity, slag inclusions, inadequate
penetration, lack of fusion and undercuts create fuzzy indications. One
should be very careful in interpreting such indications.
• Grinding cracks: These are seen on highly finished ground surfaces.
Cracks are fine, sharp and shallow and occur in groups.
• Fatigue cracks: These occur only in parts that have been in service.
Fatigue is a progressive type of brittle fracture, which occurs under
cyclic loads. These are mostly surface cracks and give sharp
indications, lying in a direction transverse to the direction of local
stress.
Quiz on LPT
• https://goo.gl/forms/E2M9jYY3UbzC8hrJ3 (case sensitive)
• MPI quiz will be on 16.03.2018

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Non Destructive Testing

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Unit # 2

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• This method is used to magnetize ring shaped components. Here, AC

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