Chapter 8

Principles of Electric Circuits - Floyd © Copyright 2006 Prentice-Hall

Voltage sources 5

An ideal voltage source 4

plots a vertical line on the

Current (A)
3
VI characteristic as shown
for the ideal 6.0 V source. 2

Actual voltage sources 1

include the internal source
resistance, which can drop 0
0 2 4 6 8 10
a small voltage under load. Voltage (V)

The characteristic of a non-

ideal source is not vertical.
Voltage sources
A practical voltage source is drawn as an ideal source
in series with the source resistance. When the internal
resistance is zero, the source reduces to an ideal one.
RS

VS +
Voltage sources
If the source resistance of a 5.0 V power supply
is 0.5 , what is the voltage across a 68  load?
RS VOUT
Use the voltage-divider VS + 0.5 W
equation 5.0 V RL
68 W
 RL 
VL    VS
 RL  RS 
 68  
  5 V = 4.96 V
 68   0.5  
Current sources 5

An ideal current source 4

plots a horizontal line on

Current (A)
3
the VI characteristic as
shown for the ideal 4.0 mA 2
source.
Practical current sources 1
have internal source
resistance, which takes some 0
0 2 4 6 8 10
of the current. The Voltage (V)

characteristic of a practical
source is not horizontal.
Current sources
A practical current source is drawn as an ideal source
with a parallel source resistance. When the source
resistance is infinite, the current source is ideal.

IS RS
Current sources
If the source resistance of a 10 mA current source
is 4.7 k, what is the voltage across a 100  load?

Use the current-divider

equation IS RS RL
 RS  10 mA 4.7 kW 100 W
IL    IS
 RL  RS 
 4.7 k 
 10 mA = 9.8 mA
 100   4.7 k 
Source conversions
Any voltage source with an internal resistance can be
converted to an equivalent current source and vice-
versa by applying Ohm’s law to the source. The source
resistance, RS, is the same for both.
VS
To convert a voltage source to a current source, IS 
RS

To convert a current source to a voltage source, VS  IS RS

 Current Sources
A battery supplies fixed voltage and the source current may
vary according to load. Similarly, a current source is one
where it supplies constant current to the branch where it is
connected and the voltage and polarity of voltage across it
may vary according to the network condition.

VS  E  12 V
12V
I2   3 A, Applying KCL
4
I1  I  I 2  7  3  4 A
 Source Conversion
A Voltage source can be converted to a current source and vice
versa. In reality, Voltage sources has an internal resistance Rs
and current sources has a shunt resistance Rsh. In ideal cases,
Rs equal to 0 and Rsh equal to .
 Source Conversion

For us to be able to convert sources, the voltage source must have a series
resistance and current source must have some shunt resistance.
Eg.
 Superposition theorem
The superposition theorem is a way to determine
currents and voltages in a linear circuit that has
multiple sources by taking one source at a time and
algebraically summing the results.
R1 R3
What does the 2 .7 k  6 .8 k
I2
ammeter read for V S1 +
- V S2 +

I2? (See next slide 12 V -

+
18 V -
R2
for the method and 6 .8 k
the answer).
What does the ammeter
R1 R3
read for I2?
2 .7 k  I2 6 .8 k
V S1 +
- V S2 +
12 V +1.56 mA
18 V
Set up a table of - -
R2
pertinent information 6 .8 k
and solve for each
quantity listed:
Source 1: RT(S1)= 6.10 k I1= 1.97 mA I2= 0.98 mA
Source 2: RT(S2)= 8.73 k I3= 2.06 mA I2= 0.58 mA
Both sources I2= 1.56 mA
The total current is the algebraic sum.
Thevenin’s theorem
Thevenin’s theorem states that any two-terminal,
resistive circuit can be replaced with a simple
equivalent circuit when viewed from two output
terminals. The equivalent circuit is:

R TH

V TH
Thevenin’s theorem
VTH is defined as the open circuit voltage between the two
output terminals of a circuit.
RTH is defined as the total resistance appearing between
the two output terminals when all sources have been
replaced by their internal resistances.
R TH

V TH
Thevenin’s theorem

What is the Thevenin voltage for the circuit? 8.76 V

What is the Thevenin resistance for the circuit? 7.30 k

Output terminals
R1
Remember, the
VS 10 k load resistor
12 V R2 RL has no affect on
27 k 68 k the Thevenin
parameters.
Thevenin’s theorem

Thevenin’s theorem is useful for solving the Wheatstone

bridge. One way to Thevenize the bridge is to create two
Thevenin circuits  from A to ground and from B to ground.
The resistance between point R1 R2
V
A and ground is R1||R3 and the S +
RL
resistance from B to ground is A B
-
R2||R4. The voltage on each R3 R4
side of the bridge is found
using the voltage divider rule.
Thevenin’s theorem
For the bridge shown, R1||R3 = 165  and
R2||R4 = 179 . The voltage from A to ground
(with no load) is 7.5 V and from B to ground
(with no load) is 6.87 V . R R2
1
VS 330 W 390 W
+15 V + RL
A B
- 150 W
R3 R4
330 W 330 W

The Thevenin circuits for each of the

bridge are shown on the following slide.
Thevenin’s theorem

RTH A RL B RTH'
VTH 165 W 150 W 179 W VTH'
7.5 V 6.87 V

Putting the load on the Thevenin circuits and

applying the superposition theorem allows you to
calculate the load current. The load current is: 1.27 mA
Norton’s theorem
Norton’s theorem states that any two-terminal, resistive
circuit can be replaced with a simple equivalent circuit
when viewed from two output terminals. The
equivalent circuit is:

IN RN
Norton’s theorem
IN is defined as the output current when the output
terminals are shorted.
RN is defined as the total resistance appearing between
the two output terminals when all sources have been
replaced by their internal resistances.

IN RN
Norton’s theorem

What is the Norton current for the circuit? 17.9 mA

What is the Norton resistance for the circuit? 359 

R1 Output terminals

VS + 560 W
10 V R2 RL
1.0 kW
820 W

The Norton circuit is shown on the following slide.

Norton’s theorem

The Norton circuit (without the load) is:

IN RN
17.9 mA 359 
Maximum power transfer
The maximum power is transferred from a source to a
load when the load resistance is equal to the internal
source resistance.
RS

VS +
RL

The maximum power transfer theorem assumes the

source voltage and resistance are fixed.
Maximum power transfer

What is the power delivered to the matching load?

RS
The voltage to the 50 W
VS +
load is 5.0 V. The RL
10 V
power delivered is 50 W
V 2 5.0 V 
2

PL   = 0.5 W
RL 50 
 Key Terms
Current source A device that ideally provides a constant
value of current regardless of the load.
Maximum power Transfer of maximum power from a source
transfer to a load occurs when the load resistance
equals the internal source resistance.
Norton’s A method for simplifying a two-terminal
theorem linear circuit to an equivalent circuit with only
a current source in parallel with a resistance.
Superposition A method for analysis of circuits with more
theorem than one source.
 Key Terms
Terminal The concept that when any given load is
equivalency connected to two sources, the same load
voltage and current are produced by both
sources.

Thevenin’s A method for simplifying a two-terminal

theorem linear circuit to an equivalent circuit with only
a voltage source in series with a resistance.
Voltage source A device that ideally provides a constant
value of voltage regardless of the load.