NETWORK LAWS

and THEOREMS
CHAPTER – 4
Network Laws and Theorems
1. Kirchhoff’s Laws
a. Voltage Law b. Current Law
2. Maxwell’s loop (mesh) method
3. The Superposition Theorem
4. Nodal Method
5. Thevenin’s Theorem
2
Network Laws and Theorems
6. Norton’s Theorem
7. Δ-Y and Y-Δ Transformations
8. Source Conversion
9. Millman’s Theorem
10.Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

3
Kirchhoff’s Laws
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL): the
algebraic sum of the currents at any junction
or node of an electric circuit is zero. The sum
of all currents entering a node is equal to the
sum of all currents leaving the node.

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL): the

algebraic sum of the emf’s and resistance
voltage drops in any closed loop of an
electric circuit is zero.
4
Standard Signs and Conventions
If the loop enters the negative sign and goes
+ out on plus sign, the battery emf is positive
(+E).
E
If the loop enters the positive sign and goes
out on negative sign, the battery emf is
negative (-E).

If the loop direction is the same as the

+ current direction, the resistance voltage
drop is negative (-ER or –IR).
ER
_ If the loop direction is opposite to the
I current direction, the resistance voltage
drop is positive (+ER or +IR). 5
 I1 I2
A B
C
R1 R2 +
+
Apply KCL: E2
E1 R3 I3
at junction “b”:
- -
I1 + I2 = I3

F E D
Apply KVL:
for loop “fabef”: E1 – I1R1 – I3R3 = 0
for loop “dcbed”: E2 – I2R2 – I3R3 = 0
for loop “fabcdef”: E1 – I1R1+ I2R2 – E2 = 0

Note: Currents I1,I2 and I3 are evaluated by simultaneous

substitutions of the equations formulated using KCL
and KVL. 6
Maxwell’s Loop (Mesh) Method
This method involves a set of independent
loop currents assigned to as many meshes as it
exist in the circuit and these currents are employed
in connection with appropriate resistances when the
KVL equations are written.

The arbitrarily assumed loop currents may or

may not exist in the various resistors but when
determined will readily yield the desired values by
simple algebraic additions. The scheme offers the
advantage that fewer equations need be written to
solve a given problem.
7
The steps used in solving a circuit using mesh
analysis are as follows:
1. Arbitrarily assign a clockwise current to each
interior closed loop in the network. Although the
assigned current may be in any direction, a
clockwise direction is used to make later work
simpler.
2. Using the assigned loop currents, indicate the
voltage polarities across all resistors in the circuit.
For a resistor which is common to two loops, the
polarities of the voltage drop due to each loop
current should be indicated on the appropriate
side of the component.

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3. Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law, write the loop
equations for each loop in the network. Do not
forget that resistors which are common to two
loops will have two voltage drops, one due to
each loop.
4. Solve the resultant simultaneous linear equations.
5. Branch currents are determined by algebraically
combining the loop currents which are common to
the branch.

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EXAMPLE 1. Find the current in each branch for the
circuit of Figure below.

Solution
Step 1: Loop currents are assigned as shown. These
currents are designated I1 and I2.
Step 2: Voltage polarities are assigned according to the
loop currents. Notice that the resistor R2 has two
different voltage polarities due to the different loop
currents. 10
Step 3: The loop equations are written by applying Kirchhoff’s
voltage law in each of the loops. The equations are as
follows:

11
Using determinants, the loop equations are easily solved as:

and

The branch current for R2 is found by combining the loop

currents through this resistor:

12
Superposition Theorem
In a network of resistors, the current in any
resistor is equal to the algebraic sum of the
currents delivered by each independent
sources assuming that each source is acting
alone or independently with respect to the
others.
The total current in any part of a linear
circuit equals the algebraic sum of the currents
produced by each source separately.
REMEMBER: If a source is operating alone, the other
current sources are open circuited while the
other voltage sources are short circuited.
13
The theorem states the following:
The total current through or voltage across a
resistor or branch may be determined by summing
the effects due to each independent source.
To apply the superposition theorem:
1. it is necessary to remove all sources other than the one
being examined.
2. In order to “zero” a voltage source, we replace it with a
short circuit, since the voltage across a short circuit is zero
volts.
3. A current source is zeroed by replacing it with an open
circuit, since the current through an open circuit is zero
amps.

14
EXAMPLE 2. Consider the circuit of Figure below;

a. Determine the current in the load resistor, RL.

b. Verify that the superposition theorem does not apply to power.

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Solution:
a. We first determine the current through RL due to the
voltage source by removing the current source and
replacing in with an open circuit (zero amps) as shown

The resulting current through RL is

determined from Ohm’s law as:

16
Next, determine the current through RL due to the current
source by removing the voltage source and replacing it with a
short circuit (zero volts) as shown

The resulting current through RL is

found with the current divider rule
as:

17
The resultant current through RL is found by applying the
superposition theorem:

• The negative sign indicates that the current through RL is

opposite to the assumed reference direction.
• Consequently, the current through RL will, in fact, be
upward with a magnitude of 0.7 A.

b. If we assume (incorrectly) that the superposition theorem

applies for power, we would have the power due the first
source given as

18
and the power due the second source as

The total power, if superposition applies, would be

Clearly, this result is wrong, since the actual power

dissipated by the load resistor is correctly given as

19
Nodal Method
For this procedure, every junction in
the network that represents a connection
of three or more branches is regarded as a
node.
Moreover, considering one of the
nodes as a reference or zero-potential
point, current equations are then written
for the remaining junctions; thus, a
solution is possible with n – 1 equations,
where n is the number of nodes.
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Illustration
I3
I1 I5
A B

R1 R3 R5
+ +
E1 I2 R4 I4 E2
R2 _
_

Reference or Zero-potential Node C

21
By KCL at node A: I1  I2  I3
E1  VA VA VA  VB
 
R1 R2 R3
 1 1 1  E1 VB
VA       0
 R1 R 2 R 3  R1 R 3

By KCL at node B: I 4  I 3  I5
VB VA  VB E 2  VB
 
R4 R3 R5
 1 1 1  E 2 VA
VB       0
 R3 R4 R5  R5 R3 22
EXAMPLE 3. Apply nodal analysis to the network of Figure
below

Solution:
Steps 1 and 2: The network has two nodes, as shown. The lower
node is defined as the reference node at ground potential (zero
volts), and the other node as V1, the voltage from node 1 to
ground.

23
Step 3: I1 and I2 are defined as leaving the node in Figure below,
and Kirchhoff’s current law is applied as follows:
I = I1 + I2

The current I2 is related to the nodal voltage V1 by Ohm’s law:

The current I1 is also determined by Ohm’s law as follows:

with

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Substituting into the Kirchhoff’s current law equation:

and rearranging,

Substituting numerical values,

25
The currents I1 and I2 can then be determined using the preceding
equations:

The minus sign indicates simply that the current I1 has a direction
opposite to that appearing in Figure above.

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Thevenin’s Theorem
 He is active in the study and design of telegraphic systems (including
underground transmission), cylindrical condensers (capacitors), and
electromagnetism
 He is best known for a theorem first presented in the French Journal
of Physics—Theory and Applications in 1883.
 It appeared under the heading of “Sur un nouveau théorème
d’électricité dynamique” (“On a new theorem of dynamic electricity”)
and was originally referred to as the equivalent generator theorem.
 There is some evidence that a similar theorem was introduced by
Hermann von Helmholtz in 1853.
 However, Professor Helmholtz applied the theorem to animal
physiology and not to communication or generator systems, and
therefore he has not received the credit in this field that he might
deserve.
 In the early 1920s AT&T did some pioneering work using the
equivalent circuit and may have initiated the reference to the
theorem as simply Thévenin’s theorem.
 In fact, Edward L. Norton, an engineer at AT&T at the time,
LEON-CHARLES THÉVENIN introduced a current source equivalent of the Thévenin equivalent
currently referred to as the Norton equivalent circuit.
 As an aside, Commandant Thévenin was an avid skier and in fact
was commissioner of an international ski competition in Chamonix,
France, in 1912.
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Thévenin’s theorem states the following:
Any two-terminal, linear bilateral dc network can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a
voltage source and a series resistor, as shown

28
Thevenin’s Theorem
 Any combination of batteries and resistances
with two terminals can be replaced by a single
voltage source VTH and a single series resistor
(RTH).

 The value of VTH is the open circuit voltage at

the terminals, and the value of RTH is VTH
divided by the current with the terminals short
circuited.

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SOLUTION 1:
1. Calculate the output voltage, VAB, when in open
circuit condition (no load resistor - meaning infinite
resistance). This is VTh.

2. Calculate the output current, IAB, when those leads

are short circuited (load resistance is 0). RTh equals
VTh divided by this IAB.

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SOLUTION 2:
a. Now replace voltage sources with short
circuits and current sources with open
circuits.
b. Replace the load circuit with an imaginary
ohm meter and measure the total resistance,
R, "looking back" into the circuit. This is RTh.

The equivalent circuit is a voltage

source with voltage VTh in series with a
resistance RTh.

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Example 4: Determine the Thévenin equivalent
circuit external to the resistor RL for the
circuit of Figure below. Use the Thévenin
equivalent circuit to calculate the current
through RL.

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Solution:
Step 1: Removing the load resistor from the circuit and labeling the
remaining terminals, we obtain the circuit shown below.

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Solution:
Step 2: Setting the sources to zero, we have the circuit below.

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Solution:
Step 3: The Thévenin resistance between the terminals is RTh = 24
.
Step 4: From figure above, the open-circuit voltage between
terminals a and b is found as Vab = 20V - (24)(2A) = -
28.0 V
Step 5: The resulting Thévenin equivalent circuit is

Using this Thévenin equivalent circuit, we easily find the current

through RL as

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NORTON’S THEOREM
The theorem states the following:
“Any two-terminal linear bilateral dc network can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current
source and a parallel resistor”

36
The steps leading to the proper values of IN and RN
are now listed:

1. Remove that portion of the network across which the

Norton equivalent circuit is found
2. Mark the terminals of the remaining two-terminal network
3. Calculate RN by first setting all sources to zero (voltage
sources are replaced with short circuits, and current
sources with open circuits) and then finding the resultant
resistance between the two marked terminals. (If the
internal resistance of the voltage and/or current sources is
included in the original network, it must remain when the
sources are set to zero.) Since RN = RTh, the procedure
and value obtained using the approach described for
Thévenin’s theorem will determine the proper value of RN.
37
The steps leading to the proper values of IN and RN are
now listed:

4. Calculate IN by first returning all sources to their original

position and then finding the short-circuit current between
the marked terminals. It is the same current that would be
measured by an ammeter placed between the marked
terminals.
5. Draw the Norton equivalent circuit with the portion of the
circuit previously removed replaced between the terminals
of the equivalent circuit.

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EXAMPLE 5. Find the Norton equivalent circuit for the network
in the shaded area of Figure below

Solution:
Steps 1 and 2 are shown in Figure below

39
Step 3. Shown in Figure below, and

Step 4. The short-circuit connection between terminals a and

b is in parallel with R2 and eliminates its effect. IN is
therefore the same as through R1, and the full battery
voltage appears across R1;

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 Since;

Therefore,

Step 5: This circuit is the same as the first one

considered in the development of Thévenin’s
theorem. A simple conversion indicates that the
Thévenin circuits are, in fact, the same

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 Y-Δ Transformation
The transformation is used to establish
equivalence for networks with 3 terminals. Where
three elements terminate at one point (node) and
none is a source, the node is eliminated by
transforming the impedances.
The Y-Δ transform (also written Y-delta or
Wye-delta), Kennelly's delta-star transformation,
star-mesh transformation or T- (or T-pi) transform
is a mathematical technique to simplify analysis of
an electrical network.
The name derives from the shapes of the
circuit diagrams, which look respectively like the
letter Y and the Greek capital letter Δ. 42
43
Δ-Y Transformation Equations

General Idea:

Balanced System:

44
Y-Δ Transformation Equations
General Idea:

45
EXAMPLE 6. Find the total resistance of the network of
Figure below, where RA = 3 , RB = 3 , and RC = 6 .

46
Replacing the  by the Y, as shown in Figure below, yields

47
SOURCE CONVERSIONS
In reality, all sources—whether they are voltage or
current—have some internal resistance in the
relative positions shown below

“It is important to realize that

source conversions are equivalent
only at their external terminals”

48
If we multiply this by a factor of 1, which we can choose
to be Rs /Rs,

Same as that obtained by applying the current divider

rule to the network

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EXAMPLE 7.
a. Convert the voltage source of Figure below to a current
source, and calculate the current through the 4- load
for each source.
b. Replace the 4- load with a 1-k load, and calculate the
current IL for the voltage source.
c. Repeat the calculation of part (b) assuming that the
voltage source is ideal (Rs = 0) because RL is so much
larger than Rs. Is this one of those situations where
assuming that the source is ideal is an appropriate
approximation?

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 Solutions:
a.

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 MILLMAN’S THEOREM
The application is that any number of parallel voltage
sources can be reduced to one

52
Three steps are included in its application:
Step 1: Convert all voltage sources to current sources

Step 2: Combine parallel current sources and the

conductances

and

53
Step 3: Convert the resulting current source to a voltage
source, and the desired single-source network is
obtained

Millman’s theorem states that for any number of parallel

voltage sources,

or

The equivalent resistance is

54
In terms of the resistance values,

and

55
EXAMPLE 8. Using Millman’s theorem, find the current
through and voltage across the resistor RL.

Solution: By equation above;

56
with

The resultant source is shown

with
57
MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM
The maximum power transfer theorem states that:
A load will receive maximum power from a linear
bilateral dc network when its total resistive value is
exactly equal to the Thévenin resistance of the network
as “seen” by the load.

58
 and

Similarly,

Under maximum power conditions (RL = RTh = RN),

and
59
EXAMPLE 9. For the circuit of Figure below, a. Determine the
value of load resistance required to ensure that maximum
power is transferred to the load, b. Find VL, IL, and PL when
maximum power is delivered to the load.

Solution:

To determine Rth,

60
To determine Eth,

61
 Maximum power will be
transferred to the load
when RL = 1.5 k.

b. Letting RL = 1.5 k, the half of the Thévenin voltage will

appear across the load resistor and half will appear
across the Thévenin resistance. So, at maximum power,

62
The power delivered to the load is found as;

Or, alternatively using current, the power as

Efficiency is defined as the ratio of output power to input

power

63
Under the condition of maximum power the
efficiency of the circuit is

64
EXAMPLE 10. Refer to the circuit of Figure below, which
represents a typical dc power supply.

a. Determine the value of RL needed for maximum

power transfer.
b. Determine terminal voltage VL and the efficiency
when the value of the load resistor is RL = 50 .
c. Determine terminal voltage VL and the efficiency when
the value of the load resistor is RL = 100  .
65
Solution:
a. For maximum power transfer, the load resistor will be
given as RL= 0.05 . At this value of load resistance,
the efficiency will be only 50%.
b. For RL = 50 , the voltage appearing across the output
terminals of the voltage source is

The efficiency is

66
 Solution:
c. For RL = 100, the voltage appearing across the output
terminals of the voltage source is

The efficiency is

“If efficiency is important, as it is in power transmission, then

the load resistance should be much larger than the resistance
of the source (typically RL = 10Rint)” 67
 ASSIGNMENT
1. A 12 V battery of 0.05-ohm resistance and
another battery of 12 V and 0.075-ohm resistance
supply power to a 2-ohm resistor. What is the
current through the load?
2. Consider the circuit of Figure below, (a.) Find the
Norton equivalent circuit external to terminals a
and b, (b.) Determine the current through RL.

CA348

68