BASICS OF ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

- Circuit Theorems -

Based on “Fundamentals of Electric Circuits”

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by C. Alexander & M. Sadiku
Overview
• In this chapter, the concept of superposition will be introduced.
• Source transformation will also be covered.
• Thevenin and Norton’s theorems will be covered.
• Examples of applications for these concepts will be presented.
Linearity
1) Homogeneity: If input is multiplied by a constant -> output is multiplied by the same constant:

2) Additivity: Sum of inputs is the sum of the responses to each input seperately.

A resistor is linear, because the voltage-current relationship satisfies both homogenetiy and
additivity properties

A linear circuit is one whose output is linearly related to its input

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Linearity
Relationship between input voltage and output power is nonlinear

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Exercise
For the circuit below, find I0 when vs = 12V and vs = 24V

KVL to 2 loops:

(1)

(2)

From (1) and (2), for vs = 12V

for vs = 24V

When source doubles, I0 doubles

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Exercise
For the circuit below, assume I0 = 1A. Use linearity to find the actual value of I0.

KVL at node 1

Ohm’s law
KCL at node 1
KVL at node 2

Ohm’s law

KCL at node 2
Since Is is actually 15 A

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Superposition
Superposition theorem states that voltage across (or current through) an element in a linear circuit
is the algebraic sum of the voltage across (current through) that element due to each independent
source acting alone.

STEPS:
1) Turn off all independent sources
-> replace voltage source with 0V ( short circuit )
-> replace current source with 0A ( open circuit )
Find the output (voltage or current) due to that active source
2) Repeat step 1 for all independent sources
3) Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions due to independent
sources

Disadvantage -> It involves more work. If the circuit has 3 independent, you’ll have to analyze three
simpler circuits
Advantage -> Superposition reduces a complex circuit to simpler circuits
• Superposition is based on linearity -> Can not be used for power calculation
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Exercise
Use the superposition theorem to find v in the circuit below

v1 and v2 are the contributions due to the 6V voltage source

and 3A current source

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Exercise
Use the superposition theorem to find i0 in the circuit below

I0’ and i0’’ are the contributions due to the 4A current source
and 20V voltage source

Loop 1
Loop 2
Loop 3
KCL at node 0
3 loop equations, 3 unknowns
(after inserting KCL eq. into loop 2&3 equations)
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Exercise (continued…)
Use the superposition theorem to find i0 in the circuit below

I0’ and i0’’ are the contributions due to the 4A current source
and 20V voltage source

Loop 4
Loop 5

2 loop equations, 2 unknowns

(after inserting last eq. into loop 4&5 equations)

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Exercise
Use the superposition theorem to find i in the circuit below

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Exercise (continued…)
Use the superposition theorem to find i in the circuit below

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Source Transformation
Source transformation is a technique to simplify circuits:

Source transformation is the process of replacing a voltage source (dependent or independent ) with
a resistor, by a current source (dependent or independent) with the same resistor in parallel.

Two circuits are equivalent and replaceable, provided that they have the same voltage-current
relationship at terminals a-b.
-> If the sources are turned off, the equivalent resistance at terminal a-b is R for both circuits
-> Short circuit current at terminal a-b is:
isc = vs/R for the circuit on the left and isc = is for the circuit on the right. Source transformation requires:

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Exercise
Use source transformation to find v0

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Exercise
Use source transformation to find vx

Entire loop
Left loop

2 equations and 2 unknowns:

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Thevenin’s Theorem
• A particular element in a circuit is variable (load) while other elements are fixed.
Example: A household outlet terminal may be connected to different appliances constituting a
variable load.
• Each time the variable element is changed, the entire circuit has to be analyzed all over again.
• To avoid this problem, Thevenin’s Theorem provides a technique by which the fixed part of the
circuit is replaced by an equivalent, simplified circuit.

Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a voltage source (VTh) in series with a resistor (RTh), where VTh is the open circuit voltage at
the terminals and RTh is the input / equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent
sources are turned off.

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Thevenin’s Theorem - summary

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 Thevenin’s Theorem - proof

• Consider the above linear circuit: An external current source is applied to the terminals of the
circuit.
• For the sake of simplicity, assume that the linear circuit contains two independent voltage
sources (vs1, vs2) and two independent current sources (is1, is2). By superposition:

Where A0 – A4 are constants. Each term on the right hand side of the equation is the contribution
due to external and internal sources. Adding the contributions due to internal sources, we arrive at:

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 Thevenin’s Theorem - proof

• We may evaluate the values of A0 and B0. When the load is open circuited: i = 0, v = B0:
B0 is the open-circuit voltage (Thevenin voltage)

• When all the internal sources are turned off, B0 = 0. The circuit can be replaced by an equivalent
resistance Req, which is RTh.

Which gives the voltage-current relationship at terminals a-b. Therefore the circuits above are
equivalent.
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 Thevenin’s Theorem – two cases
• CASE 1: If the circuit has no dependent sources, we turn off all independent sources,
RTh is the input resistance of the network looking between terminals a-b.

• CASE 2: If the network has dependent sources, we turn of all independent sources (similar to
superposition principle the dependent sources stay). We apply a voltage source (vo) at terminals a-b,
and determine the resulting current (io). Then:

alternative
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 Thevenin’s Theorem – benefits
• Greatly simplifies the circuit! A large circuit is replaced by an independent source and a resistor.
• The equivalent circuit behaves the same way as the original circuit.
• Consider a linear circuit terminated by a load resistance, current through the node, and the voltage
across the terminal can be calculated by:

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Exercise
Find the Thevenin equivalent for the circuit below, to the left of terminals a-b.
Then, find the current for RL = 6, 16 Ω

To find VTh, apply mesh analysis

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Exercise (continued…)
Find the Thevenin equivalent for the circuit below, to the left of terminals a-b.
Then, find the current for RL = 6, 16 Ω

Alternatively use nodal analysis,

Thevenin
equivalent

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Exercise
Find the Thevenin equivalent for the circuit below, at terminals a-b.

Finding RTh

Loop 1

Loop 2

Loop 3

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Exercise (continued)
Find the Thevenin equivalent for the circuit below, at terminals a-b.

Finding VTh

Loop 1
Loop 3

Loop 2

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 Exercise
Find the Thevenin equivalent for the circuit below, at terminals a-b.

KCL at node a
Ohm’s law

VTh = 0V, no independent sources

Negative resistance implies that the circuit is supplying power due to dependent source
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Norton’s Theorem
Norton’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a current source (IN) in parallel with a resistor (RN), where IN is the short circuit current at
the terminals and RN is the input / equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent
sources are turned off.

From source transformation:

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Exercise
Find the Norton equivalent for the circuit below, at terminals a-b.

Finding RN

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Exercise (continued)
Find the Norton equivalent for the circuit below, at terminals a-b.

Finding IN

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Exercise
Find the Norton equivalent for the circuit below, at terminals a-b.

Finding RN
No current passes on 4 Ω:
-> ix = 0
-> Dependent source is open circuited

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Exercise
Find the Norton equivalent for the circuit below, at terminals a-b.

Finding IN

KCL at node a

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Maximum Power Transfer
For many applications, circuits are designed to deliver power to the load.
It is desirable to maximize the power, delivered to the load:

Maximum power is transferred to the load, when the load resistance equals the Thevenin resistance,
seen from the load

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Maximum Power Transfer - proof

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Exercise
Find the value of RL for maximum power transfer

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Finding Thevenin equivalent using PSPICE

i0 = (vo – vTh) / RTh

-> 0 intercept of the below graph gives vTh
-> slope gives RTh

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Pspice?
• The Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits are
useful in understanding the behavior of realistic
sources
• Ideal voltage sources have no internal resistance
• Ideal current sources have infinite internal resistance
• The Thevenin and Norton circuits introduce
deviations from these ideals
Source Modeling
• Take the Thevenin circuit with load resistor:
• The internal resistor and the load act a voltage
divider.
• The lower the load resistance, the more voltage
drop that occurs in the source
Source Modeling II
• This means that as the load resistance increases, the voltage source
comes closer to operating like the ideal source.
• Similarly, with a realistic current source, the internal resistor in
parallel with the ideal source acts to siphon away current that would
otherwise go to the load.
Source Modeling III
• Here, the load and the internal
resistor act as a current divider.
• From that perspective, the lower the
load resistance, the more current
passes through it.
• Thus lower load resistance leads to
behavior closer to the ideal source.