Circuit Theorems

Circuit Theorems 1
 Chap. 4 Circuit Theorems

❑ Introduction
❑ Linearity property
❑ Superposition
❑ Source transformations
❑ Thevenin’s theorem
❑ Norton’s theorem
❑ Maximum power
transfer

Circuit Theorems 2
 4.1 Introduction

A large Simplify
complex circuits circuit analysis

Circuit Theorems

‧Thevenin’s theorem ‧ Norton theorem

‧Circuit linearity ‧ Superposition
‧source ‧ max. power transfer
transformation
Circuit Theorems 3
 4.2 Linearity Property

Homogeneity property (Scaling)

i → v = iR
ki → kv =kiR

Additivity property
i1 → v1 = i1R
i2 → v2 = i2 R
i1 + i2 → (i1 + i2 )R = i1R + i2 R = v1 + v2
Circuit Theorems 4
A linear circuit is one whose output is linearly related
(or directly proportional) to its input

Fig. 4.1

V0
I0

Circuit Theorems 5
 Linear circuit consistof
● linear elements
vs = 10V → i = 2A
● linear dependent sources vs = 1V → i = 0.2A
● independent sources vs = 5mV i=1mA
2
v
p =i 2 R = : nonlinear
R

Circuit Theorems 6
 Example 4.1

For the circuit in fig 4.2 find I0when vs=12Vand

vs=24V.

Circuit Theorems 7
 Example 4.1

KVL

12i1 − 4i2 + vs = 0 (4.1.1)

− 4i1 +16i2 − 3vx − vs = 0 (4.1.2)
vx = 2i1
(4.1.2) becomes
−10i1 + 16i2 − vs = 0 (4.1.3)
Eqs(4.1.1) and (4.1.3) we get
2i1 +12i2 = 0 → i1 = −6i2
Circuit Theorems 8
 Example 4.1

Eq(4.1.1), we get
vs
− 76i2 =vs = 0  i2 =
76
When vs = 12V 12
I 0 = i2 = A
76
vs = 24V
24
When I 0 = i2 = A
76
Showing that when the source value is doubled, I0
doubles.
Circuit Theorems 9
 Example 4.2

Assume I0 = 1 A and use linearity to find the actual

value of I0in the circuit in fig 4.4.

Circuit Theorems 10
 Example 4.2

If I 0 = 1A, then v1 = (3 + 5)I0 = 8V

I1 = v1 / 4 = 2A, I 2 = I1 + I 0 = 3A
V2
V2 = V1 + 2I 2 = 8 + 6 = 14V, I3 = = 2A
7
I 4 = I3 + I 2 = 5A  I S = 5A
I 0 = 1A→ I S = 5A
I 0 = 3A  I S = 15A

Circuit Theorems 11
 4.3 Superposition

The superposition principle states that the voltage

across (or current through) an element in a linear
circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltages across
(or currents through) that element due to each
independent source acting alone.
Turn off, killed, inactive source:
● independent voltage source: 0 V (short circuit)
● independent current source: 0 A (open circuit)
Dependent sources are left intact.

Circuit Theorems 12
Steps to apply superposition principle

1. Turn off all independent sources except one source.

Find the output (voltage or current) due to that active
source using nodal or mesh analysis.
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent
sources.
3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all
the contributions due to the independent sources.

Circuit Theorems 13
 How to turn off independent sources

• Turn off voltages sources = short voltage sources;

make it equal to zero voltage
• Turn off current sources = open current sources;
make it equal to zero current

Circuit Theorems 14
 Superposition involves more work butsimpler
circuits.

Superposition is not applicable to the effecton

power.

Circuit Theorems 15
 Example 4.3

Use the superposition theorem to find

v in the circuit in Fig.4.6.

Circuit Theorems 16
 Example 4.3
Since there are two sources,
let V = V1 + V2
Voltage division to get
4
V1 = (6) = 2V
4 +8
Current division, to get
8
i3 = (3) = 2A
4 +8
Hence
v = 4i = 8V
2 3

And we find v = v1 + v2 = 2 + 8 = 10V

Circuit Theorems 17
 Example 4.4

Find I0in the circuit in Fig.4.9 using superposition.

Circuit Theorems 18
 Example 4.4

Fig. 4.10

Circuit Theorems 19
 Example 4.4

Fig. 4.10

Circuit Theorems 20
 4.5 Source Transformation

A source transformation is the process ofreplacing

a voltage source vs in series with a resistor R by a
current source is in parallel with a resistor R, or
vice versa

Circuit Theorems 21
 Fig. 4.15 & 4.16

vs
vs = is R or is =
R

Circuit Theorems 22
 Equivalent Circuits

i i

+ +
v = iR + vs
v i=
v vs v
R R
- -

v
vs
-is

Circuit Theorems 23
 Arrow of the currentsource
positive terminal of voltage source
Impossible sourceTransformation
● ideal voltage source (R = 0)
● ideal current source (R=)

Circuit Theorems 24
 Example 4.6

Use source transformation to find voin the circuit

in Fig 4.17.

Circuit Theorems 25
 Example 4.6

Fig 4.18

Circuit Theorems 26
 Example 4.6

we use current division in Fig.4.18(c) to get

2
i= (2) = 0.4A
2 +8
and
vo = 8i = 8(0.4) = 3.2V

Circuit Theorems 27
 Example 4.7

Find vxin Fig.4.20 using source transformation

Circuit Theorems 28
 Example 4.7

Applying KVL around the loop in Fig 4.21(b) gives

− 3 + 5i + vx +18 = 0 (4.7.1)
Appling KVL to the loop containing only the 3V
voltage source, the1 resistor, and vx yields

− 3 +1i + vx = 0 vx = 3 − i (4.7.2)
Circuit Theorems 29
 Example 4.7

Substituting this into Eq.(4.7.1), we obtain

15 + 5i + 3 = 0  i = −4.5A
Alternatively

− vx + 4i + vx + 18= 0  i = −4.5A
thus
vx = 3 − i = 7.5V

Circuit Theorems 30
 4.5 Thevenin’s Theorem

• Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two-

terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent
circuit consisting of a voltage source VThin series
• with a resistor RThwhere VThis the open circuit
voltage at the terminals and RThis the input or
equivalent resistance at the terminals when the
independent source are turn off.

Circuit Theorems 31
 Property of Linear Circuits

i
+
Any two-terminal v Slope=1/Rth
Linear Circuits
- v
Vth
Isc

Circuit Theorems 32
 Fig. 4.23

Circuit Theorems 33
 How to Find Thevenin’s Voltage
Equivalent circuit: same voltage-current relation at
the terminals.

VTh = voc : open circuit voltageat a − b

Circuit Theorems 34
 How to Find Thevenin’s Resistance

R Th = Rin :
input − resistanceof thedeadcircuit at a − b.
• a − b open circuited
• Turn off allindependentsources

Circuit Theorems 35
CASE 1
If the network has no dependent sources:
● Turn off all independent source.
●R : can be obtained via simplification of either parallel
TH
or series connection seen from a-b

Circuit Theorems 36
 Fig. 4.25

CASE 2
If the network has dependent
sources
● Turn off all independent sources.
●Apply a voltage source v at o a-b
vo
RTh =
io

● Alternatively, apply a current

vo
source io at a-b RTh =
io
Circuit Theorems 37
 The Thevenin’s resistance may be negative, indicating
that the circuit has ability providing power

Circuit Theorems 38
 Fig. 4.26

Simplified circuit

VTh
IL =
RTh + RL

RL
VL = RL I L = VTh
RTh + RL

Voltage divider
Circuit Theorems 39
 Example 4.8

Find the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit of the circuit

shown in Fig 4.27, to the left of the terminals a-b.
Then find the current through RL= 6,16,and 36 .

Circuit Theorems 40
 Find Rth

RTh : 32V voltagesource →short

2Acurrentsource→open
4 12
RTh = 4 ||12 +1 = +1 = 4
16

Circuit Theorems 41
 Find Vth

VTh :
(1) Mesh analysis
− 32 + 4i1 +12(i1 − i2 ) = 0 , i2 = −2A
i1 = 0.5A
VTh = 12(i1 − i2 ) = 12(0.5 + 2.0) = 30V
(2) Alternatively, NodalAnalysis
(32 −VTh ) / 4 + 2 = VTh /12
VTh = 30V

Circuit Theorems 42
 Example 4.8

(3)Alternatively, source transform

32 −VTH VTH
+2=
4 12
96 − 3VTH + 24= VTH  VTH = 30V

Circuit Theorems
Fig. 4.29 43
 Example 4.8

Toget iL :
VTh 30
iL = =
RTh + RL 4 + RL
RL = 6 → I L = 30 /10 = 3A
RL = 16 → I L = 30 / 20 = 1.5A
RL = 36 →I L = 30 / 40 = 0.75A

Circuit Theorems 44
 Example 4.9

Find the Thevenin’s equivalent of the circuit in Fig.

4.31 at terminals a-b.

Circuit Theorems 45
 Example 4.9

(independent + dependent sourcecase)

To find RTh : Fig(a)

independent source →0
dependent source → intact
vo 1
vo = 1V, RTh = =
io io

Circuit Theorems 46
 Example 4.9

For loop 1,

− 2vx + 2(i1 − i2 ) = 0 or vx = i1 − i2
But − 4i = vx = i1 − i2
 i1 = −3i2

Circuit Theorems 47
 Example 4.9

Loop2and 3 :
4i2 + 2(i2 − i1 ) + 6(i2 − i3 ) = 0
6(i3 − i2 ) + 2i3 +1 = 0
Solving these equations gives
i3 = −1/ 6A.
1
But io = −i3 = A
6
1V
 RTh = = 6
io
Circuit Theorems 48
 Example 4.9

TogetVTh :Fig(b) Mesh analysis

i1 = 5
− 2vx + 2(i3 −i2 ) = 0  vx = i3 − i2
4(i2 − i1 ) + 2(i2 − i1 ) + 6i2 = 0  12i2 − 4i1 − 2i3 = 0
But 4(i1 − i2 ) =vx
i2 = 10 / 3.
VTh = voc = 6i2 = 20V

Circuit Theorems 49
 Example 4.10

Determine theThevenin’ s
equivalent circuit in
Fig.4.35(a).
Solution
(dependentsourceonlycase)
vo
VTh = 0 RTh =
io
Nodalanaysis :
io + ix = 2ix + vo / 4

Circuit Theorems 50
 Example 4.10

0 −vo vo
But ix = =−
2 2
+ vo vo + vo vo
io = i x =− = − or vo = −4io
4 2 4 4
vo
Thus RTh = = −4: Supplying power
io

Circuit Theorems 51
 Example 4.10

Circuit Theorems 52
 Example 4.10

Circuit Theorems 53
 4.6 Norton’s Theorem

• Norton’s theorem states that a linear two-

terminal circuit can be replaced by equivalent
circuit consisting of a current source INin parallel
with a
• resistor RNwhere IN is the short-circuit current
through the terminals and RN is the input or
equivalent resistance at the terminals when
the independent source are turn off.

Circuit Theorems 54
 Fig. 4.37

Slope=1/RN
v
Vth
-IN

Circuit Theorems 55
 How to Find Norton Current

Thevenin and Norton

resistances are equal:
RN = RTh
Short circuit current
from a to b :

VTh
I N = isc =
RTh

Circuit Theorems 56
 Thevenin or Norton equivalent circuit :
The open circuit voltage vocacross terminals a and b
The short circuit current iscat terminals a and b
The equivalent or input resistance Rinat terminals a
and b when all independent source are turn off.

VTh = v o c
I N = isc
VTh
RTh = = RN
R Th
Circuit Theorems 57
 Example 4.11

Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the circuit in

Fig 4.39.

Circuit Theorems 58
 Example 4.11

To find RN Fig4.40(a) :
RN = 5 ||(8 + 4 + 8)
20  5
= 5 || 20 = = 4
25

Circuit Theorems 59
 Example 4.11

To findiN (Fig.4.40(b))
short − circuit terminals a and b.
Mesh : i1 = 2A, 20i2 − 4i1 − i2 = 0
i2 = 1A= isc = IN

Circuit Theorems 60
 Example 4.11
VTh
Alternative method for IN IN =
RTh
VTh : open − circuit voltage across terminals a and b
(Fig 4.40(c)) :

Mesh analysis :
i 3 = 2 A, 25i 4 − 4i 3 −12 = 0
 i 4 = 0.8A
voc = VTh = 5i4 = 4V

Circuit Theorems 61
 Example 4.11

Hence, VTh
IN = = 4 / 4 = 1A
RTh

Circuit Theorems 62
 Example 4.12

Using Norton’s theorem, find RNand INof the

circuit in Fig 4.43 at terminals a-b.

Circuit Theorems 63
 Example 4.12

To find RN Fig .4.44(a )

• 4resistor shorted
• 5 ||vo ||2ix :Parallel
Hence, ix = vo / 5 = 1/ 5 = 0.2

vo 1
 RN = = = 5
io 0.2

Circuit Theorems 64
 Example 4.12

To find I N Fig.4.44(b)

• 4 ||10v || 5||2ix :Parallel

10 − 0
ix = = 2.5A,
4 10
isc = ix + 2ix = + 2(2.5) = 7A
5
 I N = 7A

Circuit Theorems
65
 4.8 Maximum Power Trandfer

Fig 4.48
Circuit Theorems 66
 Fig. 4.49

Maximum power is transferred to the load when

the load resistance equals the Thevenin resistance
as seen the load (RL= RTH).

Circuit Theorems 67
 dp (R + R ) 2
− 2R (R + R )
= VTH  TH
2 L L TH L

dRL  (R + R ) 4

TH L

(RTH + RL − 2RL )
= V  (R + R )3  =0
2

 
TH
TH L

0 = (RTH + RL − 2RL ) = (RTH − RL )

RL = RTH

Circuit Theorems 68
 Example 4.13

Find the value of RL for maximum power transfer

in the circuit of Fig. 4.50. Find the maximum
power.

Circuit Theorems 69
 Example 4.13

6 12
RTH = 2 + 3 + 6 12 = 5 + = 9
18

Circuit Theorems 70
 Example 4.13

−12 +18i1 −12i2 , i2 = −2A

−12 + 6ii1+ 3i2 + 2(0) + VTH = 0  VTH = 22V
RL = RTH = 9
2 2
V
= TH =
22
pmax = 13.44W
4RL 4 9

71
CCiirrccuiuitt
 Homework Problems

Problems 6, 10, 21, 28, 33, 40, 47, 52,71

Circuit Theorems 72