CHAPTER 02

The Protozoa

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 UNICELLULAR EUKARYOTES (PROTOZOAN GROUPS)
 The assemblage of eukaryotic unicellular organisms was called
protozoa. The presence of “zoa” in the name represents two animal-like
features: the absence of a cell wall, and the presence of at least one
motile stage in the life cycle. However, the unicellular forms are not
animals. It can be defined as an organism that is made up of a mass of
protoplasm, enable to carry on all vital functions of life such as
reproduction, respiration, digestion, locomotion, etc.
 As the organisms have divisions of labor inside the cytoplasm. Such
type of organization is called the protoplasmic level of organization.

Examples of Colonial organisms are Dictyostelium discoideum, supergroup Amoebozoa

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  Nekton describes
animals that can swim
against water currents:

 Plankton are plants or

animals that drift in
the current.

 Benthic organism
spend their time either
under, on or near the
surface of the ocean
floor.

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 Apical complex: spirally arranged microtubules

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 Terminology related to Classification
 Particulate food is acquired by phagocytosis via an infolding or
invagination of the plasma membrane to surround a visible food particle
larger than 0.5 μm in diameter (Figure 11.2). Heterotrophs that feed on
visible particles are phagotrophs or holozoic feeders, whereas those that
ingest soluble food are osmotrophs or saprozoic feeders.
 Heliozoa, commonly known as sun-animalcules, are microbial eukaryotes
(protists) with stiff arms (axopodia) radiating from their spherical bodies,
which are responsible for their common name.
 About 10,000 species of unicellular eukaryotes are symbiotic in or on
animals or plants, sometimes even other unicellular eukaryotes. The
relationship may be mutualistic (both partners benefit), commensalistic
(one partner benefits, no effect on the other), or parasitic (one partner
benefits at the expense of the other), depending on the species involved.
 A heterotroph is an organism that eats other plants or animals for energy
and nutrients. Parasitic forms cause some of the most important diseases of
humans and domestic animals. Sun-animalcules, the members of which
look similar to tiny sea urchins due to their spherical shape and radiating,
spiny pseudopodia
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 Locomotion in unicellular eukaryotes
 Originally, the means of locomotion was used to distinguish unicellular
eukaryotes:
 Flagellates (Figure 11.3) use flagella, ciliates (Figure 11.4) travel via a
ciliated body surface, and amebas extend their pseudopodia (Figure 11.5)
to move.
 Typically, a flagellate has a few long flagella, and a ciliate has many short
cilia, but no real morphological distinction exists between cilia and flagella.
 Beating pattern of cilia is very complicated, can move in a wide range of
motions, however flagella involves circular, wave-like or propeller-like
motion. Some investigators call them both undulipodia (unda, a wave, +
podos, a foot). However, a cilium propels water parallel to the surface to
which the cilium is attached, whereas a flagellum propels water parallel to
the main axis of the flagellum.
 Amebas are able to assume a variety of body forms (Figure 11.5) due to
flowing cell cytoplasm. The cytoplasm can be extended outward in
pseudopodia of various shapes: the most familiar are lobopodian, which
are rather large, blunt extensions of the cell body containing both
endoplasm and ectoplasm.
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FIGURE 11.3: One flagellum is
clearly visible in the center left of
this photograph of Euglena.

FIGURE 11.4: Scanning electron

micrograph of a free-living ciliate
Tetrahymena thermophila
showing rows of cilia. Beating of
flagella either pushes or pulls the
organism through its medium,
while cilia propel the organism by
a “rowing” mechanism.

Figure 11.5: Ameboid

movement. At top and center, the
ameba extends a pseudopodium
toward a paramecium. At the
bottom, the ameba surrounds the
paramecium, engulfing it by
phagocytosis.

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 Filopodia are thin extensions, usually branching, and containing only
ectoplasm. They occur in some amebas, e.g Euglypha (Figure 11.06 B).
 Axopodia (11.08) are long, thin pseudopodia supported by axial rods of
microtubules (Figure 11.10). The microtubules are arranged in a definite
spiral or geometrical array, depending on the species, and constitute the
axoneme of the axopod. Axopodia can be extended or retracted,
apparently by adding or removing microtubular material. Since the tips
can adhere to the substrate, the organism can progress by a rolling
motion, shortening the axonemes in front and extending those in the
back. Cytoplasm can flow along the axonemes, toward the body on one
side and in the reverse direction on the other.
 Reticulopodia (Figure 11.6) are branched filaments, that repeatedly
rejoin to form a netlike mesh.
 Amebas that make shells are called testate. Arcella and Difflugia have
their delicate plasma membrane covered with a protective test or shell of
secreted siliceous or chitinoid material. They move using pseudopodia
that projects from openings in the shell (Figure 11.6).

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 Some very abundant shelled amebas include foraminiferans
(Globigerina, Figure 11.6), radiolarians (Figure 11.7), and heliozoans.
Amebas without shells are called naked amebas.

 Figure 11.10 A, Diagram of an axopodium to show orientation of B. The axoneme of an axopodium

is composed of an array of microtubules, which may vary from three to many in number depending
on the species. Some species can extend or retract their axopodia quite rapidly. B, Electron
micrograph of axopodium (from Actinosphaerium nucleofilum) in cross section.

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FIGURE 11.6 The amebas are a very diverse group distributed across many clades: Arcella,
Difflugia, and Amoeba have lobopodia and are amoebozoans, Globigerina has a testate
body with netlike reticulopodia and is a foraminiferan, and Chlamydophrys and Clathrulina
are cercozoans, whereas Actinosphaerium and Actinophrys are now stramenopiles
FIGURE 11.7 Some amebas, like those whose shells are shown here, are commonly called
radiolarians.

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 FORM AND FUNCTION
Cilia and Flagella
 A cilium or flagellum has considerable internal structure. Although
modifications to the basic plan are found occasionally, cilia are always
cylindrical, with each cilium arising from a basal body (kinetosome).
 Kinetosomes are identical in structure to centrioles that organize mitotic
spindles during cell division.
Inner to the Body Surface:
A cross section of a cilium’s kinetosome in the region beneath the outer body
surface shows a ring of 9 groups of long fibers called microtubules, with 3
microtubules to a group (Fig.).
 The A, or innermost microtubule of each group, is physically connected to
the C, or outermost microtubule of an adjacent group, via a thin filament.
Additional filaments connect the A microtubule to a central tubule, like the
spokes of a wheel.
External to the Body Surface:
 The configuration of microtubules changes somewhat near the distal end of
the cilium. A cross section through a cilium external to the body surface
shows that each flagellum or cilium has major motor portion, ---
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 Males with Kartagener triad are sterile (immotile sperm). Both men and
women affected by the syndrome are susceptible to bronchial infections
(immotile respiratory cilia) and have a 50% chance of having the heart
on the right side of the body.
 This axoneme is covered by a membrane continuous with the plasma
membrane covering the rest of the organism. At about the point where
an axoneme enters the cell proper, the central pair of microtubules ends
at a small plate within the circle of nine pairs (Figure). Also, at about
that point, another microtubule joins each of the nine pairs, giving rise to
a kinetosome (or basal body).
 The "9 + 2" microtubule arrangement with dynein arms has been
conserved in axonemes for all motile flagella and cilia throughout the
eukaryotic kingdoms, suggesting that this arrangement is extremely well
suited for transmitting energy for movement.
 The ATP needed to whip the flagellum and propel the organisms comes
from mitochondria.

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FIGURE 2.21
Internal Structure of
Cilia and Flagella. In
cross section, the arms
extend from each
microtubule doublet
toward a neighboring
doublet, and spokes
extend toward the central
paired microtubules. The
dynein arms push against
the adjacent microtubule
doublet to bring about
movement.

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Mastigonemes
Unlike cilia, however, flagella often bear numerous, external hairlike
projections (mastigonemes) along their length.
Presumably, these mastigonemes increase the effective surface area of the
flagellum, thus increasing the power that it can generate when it moves
through the water..
Types of Flagella:
Flagella are divided into four types by the arrangement of mastigonemes on
the flagellum.
Stichonematic: Mastigonemes are in one row on the axoneme up to tip.
e.g : Euglena
Pantonematic: Mastigonemes are in two rows. e.g: Peranema, Monas
Acronematic: Flagellum has no mastigonemes, it ends with a fine
filament. e.g : Chlamydomonas, Polytoma
Simple flagellum: This flagellum will not show mastigonemes or end in
fibre. e.g : Dinoflagellates.

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• In Mastigophora organisms one or two or many flagella are seen. If a flagellum
drags the organisms it is called Tracteilum. The flagellum which pushes the
organisms forward is called Pulsellum.
Location:
 Flagella can be located singly at one cell pole (monotrichous flagella), at both
poles (amphitrichous flagella), in large numbers along the length of the cell
(peritrichous flagella), or as a tuft of flagella at a polar end (lophotrichous
flagella). They usually have a wavy or undulating appearance, and are about 10–
15 nm in diameter and 2–15 µm in length (Fig. 2.4)

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Cilia
Cilia is the characteristic of class Ciliate. Cilia are similar in structure to
flagella except the mode of action.
They are also originate from basal granules called kinetosome. Cilia
different from flagella in the following way.
1.Cilia are more in numbers and mostly occupy almost entire body surface
of the organism.
2.Cilia have no mastigonemes.
3.Cilia are smaller.
4.The rhythmic and coordinated bending and recovery of cilia enable both
locomotion and food collection.
5.Ciliates are the fastest-moving of all protozoans, achieving speeds of up
to 2 mm per second. In contrast, flagellate locomotion can be fairly rapid,
up to about 200 μm per second. This is only about one-tenth the speed
attained by many ciliates but is about 40 times that reached by the fastest
amoebae, which typically move using pseudopodia, as described next.

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 Pseudopodia occur in free-living amebas, in a variety of flagellated unicellular
eukaryotes, and in ameboid cells of many animals.
 The mammalian body depends on ameboid white blood cells for defense
against disease, and similar roles are played by ameboid cells in many other
animals. Movement by pseudopodia occurs over relatively short distances.
(Figure 11.11)
Trailing edge

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