Topic 2 - Vapor Compression and Air, Refrigeration Cycles

Topic – 2
Vapor Compression cycle

Book:
 Refrigeration & Air-Conditioning by Wilbert F.

Stoecker / Jerold W. Jones(Chapter – 10)
Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME NUST

o The Carnot Cycle

o Reversed Carnot Cycle
o Carnot Heat pumps
o Modifications in Ideal Carnot Cycle for practical reasons
o Vapor Compression Cycle (VCC) components
o Introduction to PH charts
o Performance of Standard VCC
o Heat Exchangers
o Actual Vapor Compression Cycle (VCC)

The Carnot Cycle

 Ideal thermodynamically Reversible Cycle, first investigated by Sadi Carnot
in 1824
 A measure of the maximum possible conversion of heat energy into

mechanical energy
T2=T3
2 3
Temperature
Heat from high
temperature source
2 3
T1=T4 4
1
Turbine Work SA SB
Work Compressor Entropy
Process 1-2: Adiabatic Compression

1 4 Process 2-3: isothermal addition of heat
Cool Liquid
Process 3-4: adiabatic expansion
Heat rejected to low
temperature sink Process 4-1: isothermal rejection of heat
The Carnot Cycle
 Heat supplied during isothermal expansion (2-3) T2=T3

2 3
Temperature
= T2 (SB - SA)
 Heat rejected during isothermal compression T1=T4 4
1
(4-1) = T1 (SB – SA)
 work done = Heat supplied – Heat rejected

SA
Entropy
SB
= T2 (SB – SA) – T1 (SB – SA) Process 1-2: adiabatic compression

Process 2-3: isothermal addition of heat
= (SB – SA)(T2 – T1) Process 3-4: adiabatic expansion
𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 ሺ𝑺𝑩 − 𝑺𝑨 ሻሺ𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 ሻ 𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 Process 4-1: isothermal rejection of heat
𝜼= = =
𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒔𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒅 𝑻𝟐 ሺ𝑺𝑩 − 𝑺𝑨 ሻ 𝑻𝟐
𝑻𝟏 Efficiency increases as T2 is increased and T1 is decreased
𝜼=𝟏−
𝑻𝟐
Heat should be taken in, at as high temperature as possible and rejected
at as low a temperature as possible.

Reversed Carnot Cycle (i.e. Carnot Cycle for Refrigeration Cycle)
 A measure of the maximum performance to be obtained from a refrigerating

machine Heat to high
temperature source
3 2
3 2
Temperature
Net Work
Compressor 4 1
Work Turbine
Entropy
4 1
Cool Liquid 1-2: Adiabatic compression
Heat from low 2-3: Isothermal heat rejection
temperature sink 3-4: Adiabatic expansion
4-1: Isothermal addition of heat or isothermal
expansion

Reversed Carnot Cycle (i.e. Carnot Cycle for Refrigeration Cycle)
 Heat absorbed from the low temperature source 3 2
Temperature
in process 4-1 is the Refrigeration Step
Net Work
 Carnot Cycle: 4 1
o A standard of comparison,
o A convenient guide to the temperatures Entropy
that should be maintained to achieve
maximum effectiveness 1-2: Adiabatic compression
2-3: Isothermal heat rejection
3-4: Adiabatic expansion
4-1: Isothermal addition of heat or
isothermal expansion

Coefficient of Performance (COP)
 Ratio of output to input would be misleading for a 3 2
Temperature
refrigeration system as the o/p in process 2-3 is
usually wasted Net Work
4 1
𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕
𝑪𝑶𝑷 =
𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑬𝒙𝒑𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆
Entropy
1-2: Adiabatic compression

𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒂𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒓𝒃𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆
= 2-3: Isothermal heat rejection
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒔𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒐𝒓
𝑼𝒔𝒆𝒇𝒖𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 4-1: Isothermal addition of heat
=
𝑵𝒆𝒕 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌
or isothermal expansion

Conditions for Highest Coefficient of Performance
 Useful Refrigeration is the heat transferred in

process 4-1, or the area beneath the line 4-1 3 2
Temperature
 Area underline 2-3 represents the Heat Net Work
Rejected from the cycle 1
4
 Area enclosed in rectangle 1-2-3-4 represents Refrigeration

the Net Work
Entropy (S)
 Work done = Heat Rejected – Heat Supplied KJ / Kg.K
= T2 (S2 – S3) – T1 (S1 – S4)
= (T2 – T1) (S1 – S4) = Area of rectangle
𝑻𝟏 ሺ𝑺𝟏 − 𝑺𝟒 ሻ 𝑻𝟏
𝑪𝑶𝑷 = =
ሺ𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 ሻሺ𝑺𝟏 − 𝑺𝟒 ሻ ሺ𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 ሻ

Coefficient of Performance (COP)
 COP indicates that a given amount of

3 2
refrigeration requires only a small amount of
Temperature
work
Net Work
 COP of the Reversed Carnot Cycle is entirely a 4 1

function of the temperature limits and can vary
Refrigeration
from zero to infinity
Entropy (S)
 To obtain maximum possible COP KJ / Kg.K
1-2: Adiabatic compression
o Cold body temperature T should be as high as possible
1
o Hot body temperature T should be as low as possible

2 2-3: Isothermal heat rejection
4-1: Isothermal addition of heat
or isothermal expansion

Temperature Limitations
 All refrigeration works against certain temperature limitations
o Cold room to be maintained at -20 C or 253 K

o
o Reject heat to the atmosphere at 30 C or 303 K

o
T Δt
3 2
30 C = 303 K
o
 During Heat Rejection Process,
Atmosphere
refrigerant temperature must be

higher than 303 K -20 oC = 253 K Cold Room
4 1
Δt
 Duringthe Refrigeration Process, refrigerant

temperature must be lower than 253 K S

Temperature Limitations
 we can keep the Δt as small as possible T Δt

3 2
 Reduction of Δt can be accomplished by Atmosphere
increasing A or U in the heat exchange
equation: Cold Room
4 1
Δt
Q = U A Δt
S
 To decrease Δt to zero, either U or A would have to be infinite
 Infinite values of U and A would also require an infinite cost

Carnot Heat Pump  Heat Pump → A system that operates for the
purpose of delivering heat at a high level of
temperature
Refrigeration cycle absorbs heat at a Heat Pump rejects heat at a high
low temperature temperature

Carnot Heat Pump
 Performance Factor T
3 2
𝑻𝟐 ሺ𝑺𝟏 − 𝑺𝟒 ሻ 𝑻𝟐 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒓𝒆𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅

= = = Net Work
ሺ𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 ሻሺ𝑺𝟏 − 𝑺𝟒 ሻ ሺ𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 ሻ 𝑵𝒆𝒕 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌
4 Heat
1
Rejected
 COP of Refrigeration Cycle with the same S

temperatures would be: T1/(T2 - T1).
𝑻𝟐 𝑻𝟐 𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏
= = − +𝟏
ሺ𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 ሻ ሺ𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 ሻ 𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏
Performance
Factor 𝑻𝟏
= + 𝟏 = 𝑪𝑶𝑷 + 𝟏
𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏
Example 1
Carnot refrigeration cycle absorbs heat at 270 K and rejects heat at 300 K.
(a) Calculate the coefficient of performance of this refrigeration cycle.
(b) If the cycle is absorbing 1130 kJ/min at 270 K, how many kJ of work is
required per second.
(c) If the Carnot heat pump operates between the same temperatures as the
above refrigeration cycle, what is its Performance Factor.
(d) How many kJ/min will the heat pump deliver at 300 K if it absorbs 1130
kJ/min at 270 K.

Example 2
The capacity of a refrigerator is 200 TR when working between – 6 °C and 25 oC.

Determine the mass of ice produced per day from water at 25°C. Also find the
power required to drive the unit. Assume that the cycle operates on reversed
Carnot cycle and latent heat of ice is 335 kJ/kg, Specific Heat of water is 4.187
KJ/Kg oC.

Carnot Refrigeration Cycle for Vapor as Refrigerant
 If vapor/gas such as air is used as the refrigerant, cycle would differ from the
familiar rectangle of the Carnot cycle.
 Cycle differs from the Carnot cycle by the x

2
addition of areas x and y 3 Atmosphere
T
 Effect of area x is to increase the work required,

Cold Room
which decreases the COP. 1
4 y
 Effect of area y is to increase the work required S

and in addition reduce the amount of
refrigeration
 Both these effects of areas x and y reduce the COP

Revision of the Carnot Cycle
Wet Compression versus Dry Compression
 The Compression process 1-2 is called wet

compression T
3 2 Atmosphere
 With a reciprocating compressor, the wet
Cold Room
compressor is not suitable 4 1 Saturated
o liquid refrigerant may be trapped in the head of the Saturated
Vapor
cylinder by the rising piston and may damage the Liquid

compression valves and the cylinder itself
S
o Another possible danger of wet compression is that the droplets of liquid may wash
the lubricating oil from the valve of the cylinder thus increasing wear

Wet Compression versus Dry Compression
 If the refrigerant entering the compressor is saturated vapor as point 1, the

compression from point 1-2 is called Dry Compression
 Compression of a dry vapor results in a

2
temperature at point 2 which is higher than T Super
the condensing temperature. 3 Heated Horn
 Area of that part of the cycle which is above 4 1

the condensing temperature is called the
Super Heated Horn
 Super Heated Horn represents additional work required by dry compression

Expansion Process
 Carnot cycle demands that the expansion 3-4 takes place Isentropically and
that the resulting work be used to help drive the compressor
 Expansion Engine is not found suitable

T
2
o Work derived from the expansion engine is a small 3
fraction of that to be supplied to the compressor

1
4
o Difficulties such as lubrication intrude when a fluid
of two phases drives the engine
S
o Economics of the Power Recovery has not justified the cost of the expansion process

Expansion Process
 A Throttling Device such as a valve or other T

2
restrictions is almost universally used for this 3
purpose
1
4
 No change in potential and kinetic energy and S
with no transfer of heat, → constant enthalpy

process i.e. h3 = h4 i.e. process is Isenthalpic
 Constant enthalpy throttling process is Irreversible and during the process

entropy increases
o Friction is one of the biggest reasons for any process to be irreversible
Standard vapor compression cycle
1-2: Adiabatic compression (Reversible)

2
2-3: Constant Pressure heat rejection (Reversible) T
3
3-4: Isenthalpic expansion (Irreversible)
4-1: Constant Pressure heat addition (Reversible)
1
4
3 Condenser 2
S
Expansion
Compressor
Valve
4
Evaporator
1

Standard Vapor Compression System
1- Evaporator
8
 to produce a heat transfer surface
through which heat can pass from
the refrigerant space into the
vaporizing refrigerant 7
1
2- Suction Line 2 4
 carries the low pressure vapor from 5

the evaporator to the suction inlet
of the compressor 6
3

3- Compressor
8
 To draw refrigerant vapor from the
evaporator and then it rises its
temperature and pressure to such a 7
point so that it may be easily 1
condensed with normally available
condensing media 2 4
4- Discharge Line or Hot Gas Line 5

6
 delivers the high temperature, high 3
pressure vapor from the discharge
of the compressor to the condenser


5- Condenser
 to provide a heat transfer surface 8

through which heat passes from
the hot refrigerant vapor to the
condensing medium, which is 7
1
either air or water
 Energy rejected by the Condenser 2 4

comprises the heat energy removed by
5
each kilogram of refrigerant passing
6
through the Evaporator and the heat 3
energy added to each kilogram of
refrigerant passing through the
Compressor

6- Receiver Tank
 Reservoir which stores the liquid 8
refrigerant coming from the
condenser and supplies it to the
evaporator according to the
requirement
7
7- Liquid Line
1
 carries the liquid refrigerant from
the receiver tank to the
refrigerant flow control valve 2 4
8- Refrigerant Flow Control or 5

Expansion Valve
6
 to supply a proper amount of refrigerant to
3
the evaporator after reducing its pressure
considerably so that the refrigerant may
take sufficient amount of heat from the
refrigerant space during evaporation

Introduction to PH-Charts
 The properties of the refrigerants can be listed in tables or they can be shown
on a graph
 Most useful and commonly used in refrigeration work is called the Pressure
Enthalpy (P-h)
 Condition of the refrigerant in any

thermodynamic state can be
represented as a point in the P-h chart P 1 2 3
that represents the condition of the Saturated
Liquid Curve
refrigerant in any one particular
thermodynamic state
Saturated
 Once the state point has been located on Vapor Curve
the chart, other properties of the

refrigerant for that state can be h
determined directly from the chart

Introduction to PH-Charts
Property Lines on the Pressure – Enthalpy Diagram
Saturated Liquid
Curve
P Iso-Enthalpy Saturated Vapor Curve
Line
Iso-Entropy Line
Iso-Pressure
Line
Iso-Specific
Iso-Thermal
Volume Line
Line
Iso-Quality Line

Performance of standard vapor compression cycle

3 Condenser 2
Expansion Compressor
Valve
4
Evaporator
1
 With the help of ph-diagram, significant P

quantities of the vapor compression (kPa) 3 Condensation
2
cycle will be determined:
Expansion
n
s io
es
o Work of compression o COP m
pr
Co
Evaporation
o Heat rejection rate o Volume flow rate per 4 1
KW of refrigeration
o Refrigeration effect
h, kJ/kg
Work of compression
 Change in enthalpy in process 1-2 P

(kPa) 3 Condensation
2
W = (h2 - h1 ) KJ/kg
Expansion
n
sio
s
p re
o m
C
 Knowledge of the work of compression is 4
Evaporation
1
important → this term may be one of the largest
operating costs of the system
h, kJ/kg
Heat rejection
 Change in enthalpy in process 2-3, → ( h3 - h2 ) → KJ/kg
 This heat rejection value is used in sizing the condenser and calculating the required flow
quantities of the condenser cooling fluid


Refrigerating Effect
 Change in enthalpy in process 4-1 P

( h1 – h4 ) → KJ/kg 2
Expansion
on
 Knowledge of the magnitude of this term is es si
necessary because performing this process is pr
m
Co
the ultimate purpose of the entire system Evaporation
4 1
COP
𝒉𝟏 − 𝒉𝟒
𝑪𝑶𝑷 =
𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉𝟏 h, kJ/kg
 Volume flow rate per kW is usually expressed in cubic meter per second per kW
(m3/sec.kW).
 Volume Flow Rate is rough indication of the physical size of the compressor → Greater the
value of the term, greater must be the displacement of the compressor in m 3/sec
 Efficient refrigeration system has a low value of power per kW, but a high COP

Example 3
A standard vapor-compression cycle developing 50 kW of refrigeration using

refrigerant 22 operates with a condensing temperature of 35 o
C and an
evaporating temperature of -10 oC. Calculate :
(a) the refrigerating effect in KJ/kg,
(b) the circulation rate of refrigerant in kg/s,
(c) the power required by the compressor in kW,
(d) the COP,
(e) the volume flow rate measured at the compressor suction,
(f) the power per kW of refrigeration
(g) the compressor discharge temperature.

R-22 State 2
s2=s1
State 3 p2=p3
Temperature = 35°C 3 Condenser 2
Saturated liquid
Valve
4
Evaporator
1
State 4
State 1
h3=h4
Q(1-4) = 50kW Temperature = -10°C
Saturated vapor

Vapor Compression Cycle
PH-Diagram of superheated R-22 Vapor
3 2
4
1
h=243 h=401 h=435


Heat Exchangers
3 Condenser 2
1
Compressor
Heat
Exchanger
4
5
Evaporator
6 P Sub Cooling
4 3 Condensation
 Heat exchanger sub cools the liquid from the 2
Expansion
condenser with suction vapor coming from on
s si
e
the evaporator pr
m
Co
Evaporation
h3 - h4= h1 – h6 5 5/ 6 1
Super Heating

Heat Exchangers
 System using the heat exchanger may seem to have obvious advantages
because of the increased refrigeration effect
 Both capacity and coefficient of P Sub Cooling

performance seem to be improved 4 3 Condensation
2
Expansion
This is not necessarily true i on
ess
pr
 Compression is pushed further out into Evaporation
Co
m
the super heat region, where work of 5 5 /

6 1
compression in KJ/kg is greater than, it Super Heating
is closed to the saturated vapor line h
 Heat Exchanger is justified, where the vapor entering the compressor must be
super heated to ensure that no liquid enters the compressor
 Heat Exchanger subcools the liquid from the condenser to prevent bubbles of
vapor from impeding the flow of refrigerant through the expansion valve

Actual Vapor Compression Cycle

 Difference b/w actual and Standard cycle can be shown by superimposing the
actual cycle on the Ph-diagram of the standard cycle
 Essential Differences between the actual and the standard cycle appear:
o In the pressure drops in the
condenser and evaporator
o In the sub cooling of the liquid P Sub Cooling Pressure Drop Actual Cycle
leaving the condenser 2

3
o In the superheating of the Standard Cycle
vapor leaving the evaporator
o The compressor is not
functioning isentropically
4
1
Pressure Drop Super Heating

Example 4
In the vapor compression cycle a throttling device is used almost universally to

reduce the pressure of the liquid refrigerant.
(a) Determine the percent saving in net work of the cycle per kg of refrigerant if
an expansion engine could be used to expand saturated liquid refrigerant 22
isentropically from 35 oC to the evaporator temperature of 0 oC . Assume that
compression is isentropic from saturated vapor at 0 oC to a condenser
pressure corresponding to 35 oC.
(b) Calculate the increase in refrigerating effect in kJ/kg resulting from use of
the expansion engine.

Example 4
3 Condenser 2
Valve
4
Evaporator
1
P
State 1 = T = 0°C, Sat Vapor 2
Expansion
n
State 2 = S2 = S1, P2=P3 sio
es
pr
State 3 = T = 35°C, Sat Liquid Co
m
Evaporation
State 4 = H4=H3 4 1
h, kJ/kg
Example 4
State 1
h1 = 405.46, s1 = 1.752
State 2
s2=1.752, P correspondi
h2 = 430.504
State 3
h3 = 243
State 4
h4 = 243

Condensor
Example 4
3 2
Compressor
Work Turbine
4 1
P
Evaporator (kPa) Condensation
3 2
Expansion
n
State 1 = T = 0°C, Sat Vapor sio
es
pr
State 2 = S2 = S1, P2=P3 m
Co
Evaporation
State 3 = T = 35°C, Sat Liquid 1
4
State 4 = S4=S3, P4 = P1
h, kJ/kg
Example 4
State 1
h1 = 405.36, s1 = 1.752
State 2
s2=1.752, p2 = 1354kpa,
h2 = 430.504
State 3
h3 = 243, s3 = 1.146
State 4
X=0.19, h4=239
s= sf+x(sg-sf)
h= hf+x(hg-hf)
Problem 1
A commercial refrigerator with refrigerant-134a as the working fluid is used to

keep the refrigerated space at -30°C by rejecting its waste heat to cooling water
that enters the condenser at 18°C at a rate of 0.25 kg/s and leaves at 26°C. The
refrigerant enters the condenser at 1.2 MPa and 65°C and leaves at 42°C. The
inlet state of the compressor is 60 kPa and -34°C and the compressor is
estimated to gain a net heat of 450 W from the surroundings. Determine
(a) The quality of the refrigerant at the evaporator inlet,
(b) the refrigeration load,
(c) the COP of the refrigerator, and
(d) the theoretical maximum refrigeration load for the same power input
to the compressor.

Topic 2: Air Cycle Refrigeration System
Book:
 Refrigeration & Air-Conditioning by C. P. Arora –

Chapter 11 (till section 11.3)
 A textbook of Refrigeration & Air-Conditioning by R.S.
Khurmi Chapter 3 except evaporative cooling (3.4, 3.6)

Air Cycle Refrigeration System
 Air Cycle Refrigeration unit uses Air as the refrigerant

 Gas does not undergo any phase change during the cycle
 All the internal heat transfer processes are Sensible Heat Transfer processes
Ideal Air Cycle (Reverse Brayton cycle)
Basic Principle
 Temperature of an ideal gas can be reduced either:

o by making the gas to do work in an isentropic process or
o by sensible heat exchange with a cooler environment

Ideal Air Cycle (Reverse Brayton cycle)
T 3
Ambient
1
Pressure
4
Process 1-2: Isentropic Compression of air from the cabin or outdoor air
Process 2-3: Isobaric Heat Rejection through a heat exchanger
Process 3-4: Isentropic Expansion through a turbine
Process 4-1: Isobaric Heat Extraction providing a useful refrigeration effect

Actual Reverse Brayton cycle
 Actual Reverse Brayton

cycle differs from the ideal
cycle due to:
i. Non-isentropic compression
and expansion processes
ii. Pressure drops in cold and

hot heat exchangers

Air Craft Cooling

Air Craft Cooling
 To keep the cabin temperatures at a comfortable level

 Cooling requirements per unit volume of the space are quite heavy due to the
compactness of all equipments and engine models
External Sources of Heat

o Solar Energy
o Compression of Ambient Air from ambient pressure to pressure required in the cabin,
→ an increase in temperature
E.G. outside air at p = 0.2 bars and T = 223 K (at 10000 m altitude) is compressed
to 1 bar, its temperature increases to about 353 K (80 oC) → Ram Effect → adds heat
to the cabin, which needs to be taken out by the cooling system.
o Due to Skin Friction, air is heated up thus causing heat load to transfer through the
surface of airplane to the passenger’s cabin
E.G. Aeroplane moving with 1000 km/hr will experience 50 oC rise in temperature of
the surface

Air Craft Cooling
Internal Sources of Heat

o Heat given off by passengers or pilot
o Heat from engine parts transmitted through conduction, convection, or radiation to the
cabin
o Heat generation from electrical and electronic devices
Advantages of Air Cycle Refrigeration
o Air is cheap, safe, non-toxic and non-flammable. Leakage of air is not a problem
o Aircraft engine already consists of a High Speed Turbo-compressor; hence

separate compressor for cooling system is not required → reduces the weight
per kW of cooling considerably
o Design of the complete system is much simpler and maintenance required is

also less

Dry Air Rated Temperature (DART)
 Temperature of the discharged air from the expander if there is no condensed

moisture present
 This is the Temperature in terms of which the comparison of different types of

air-refrigeration systems is made
 Rating of the Aircraft units is given in terms of kg of air per unit time at the
design DART
 Machines Capacity giving ṁ kg/s of air at a DART of t o to maintain a cabin at a

temperature ti is:
Q = m cp (ti – to)

Simple Cooling System
Main Diffuser
Compressor
Compressor
3 Discharge
Pressure
Ram Air C Rammed Air
T 4 Pressure
Ambient Air
2 Heat Exchanger
Cabin
Pressure
Cooling
Ambient
Turbine
Pressure
6
5 1
Exhaus
t Fan
S
Process 1-2: Diffuser converts part of the kinetic energy into pressure → Ramming To Cabin
Process 2-3 compression in the main compressor
Process 3-4: high pressure and high temperature air is cooled with rammed air in a cooler
Process 4-5: cooling of air in cooling turbine and extraction of work
Process 5-6: net refrigeration effect produced to the room temperature maintained inside
the cabin

Compressor
Process 1-2: Ramming of air: 3 Discharge
Pressure
Ram Air
K.E of outside air relative to aircraft T 4 Pressure
2
Cabin
Pressure
⇒ Ambient
Pressure
6
5 1
⇒ S
Pressure after isentropic compression:

As ⇒ ⇒
⇒
Process 2-3: Compression in main Compressor:

Compressor
3 Discharge Pressure
Ram Air
T 4 Pressure
Process 3-4: Cooling of Ram Air in
Heat Exchanger: 2
Cabin
Pressure
Process 4-5: Expansion in Turbine: Ambient
Pressure
6
5 1
Process 5-6: Air getting heated to
cabin temperature: S
T6 is the inside temperature of the cabin

COP of Air Cycle:
Compressor
3 Discharge
Pressure
Ram Air
T 4 Pressure
2
Cabin
Pressure
Ambient
Pressure
6
5 1

Air Craft Cooling
State 1 = 0.35bar, -15 °C, 1000km/hr

State 2 =
State 3 = pressure ratio is 3
State 4 = pressure drop 0.1bar
State 5 = 1.06 bar
State 6 = 25 °C, 1.01 bar, Q56 = 58.05kw


Example
An aircraft refrigeration plant has to handle a cabin load of 30

tonnes. The atmospheric temperature is 17 oC. The atmospheric air
is compressed to a pressure of 0.95 bar and temperature of 30 oC
due to ram action. The air is then further compressed in a
compressor to 4.75 bar, cooled in a heat exchanger to 67 oC,
expanded in a turbine to 1 bar pressure and supplied to the cabin.
The air leaves the cabin at a temperature of 27 oC. The isentropic
efficiencies of both compressor and turbine are 0.9. Calculate:
(i) The mass of air circulated per minute;

(ii) C.O.P
Take for air: cp= 1.005 kj/kg K and γ = 1.4.

Air Craft Cooling
State 1 = 17 °C
State 2 = 30 °C, 0.95bar
State 3 = 4.75bar
State 4 = 67 °C
State 5 = 1 bar
State 6 = 27 °C, 1 bar, Q56 = 30 tonnes
N23 = n45 = 0.9

Cp = 1.005
Y = 1.4
N45 = T4-T5’/T4-T5
N23 = T3-T2/T3’-T2
Boot Strap Type Cooling System

Main Compressor
C1 Rammed Air Ambient Air
Primary Heat Secondary Heat

Exchanger Exchanger
To Atmosphere To Atmosphere Cooling Turbine
C2 T
To Cabin

Compressor
5 Discharge
Pressure
Process 1-2: Diffuser converts part
T 6
of the kinetic energy into pressure → 3
Ramming 4 Ram Air Pressure
2
Process 2-3: compression in the main
Cabin Pressure
compressor
Ambient Pressure
Process 3-4: high pressure air is
8 1
cooled with rammed air as cooling 7
medium in primary heat exchanger
Process 4-5: Further compression takes place in second compressor S
Process 5-6: High pressure and high temperature is cooled in a secondary heat exchanger
by means of rammed air
Process 6-7 expansion of air to desired cabin pressure and temperature takes place in a
cooling turbine with expansion of air
Process 7-8 net refrigeration effect maintained inside the cabin

Air required for the refrigeration of Q tonnes:
Power required for the main compresor system:

Compressor
5 Discharge
Pressure
T 6
3
4 Ram Air Pressure
2
COP of the refrigeration system:
Cabin Pressure
Ambient Pressure
1
7
S
Reduced Ambient Air-refrigeration System
Air to
combustion
chamber

Reduced Ambient Air-refrigeration System

Process 1-2: Ramming
Process 2-3: Compression in the main

compressor
Process 3-4: Cooling of compressed air by ram

air which after passing through the first cooling
turbine (T-1) is led to the heat exchanger
Process 4-5: Expansion of air in the second

cooling turbine (T-2) up to cabin pressure
Process 5-6: Heating of air up to cabin

temperature (T6)

S

The reduced ambient air refrigeration system used for an aircraft consists
of two cooling turbines, one heat exchanger and one air cooling fan. The
speed of aircraft is 1500 km/h. The ambient air conditions are 0.8 bar and
10° C. The ram efficiency may be taken as 90%. The rammed air used for
cooling is expanded in the first cooling turbine and leaves it at a pressure of
0.8 bar.
The air bled from the main compressor at 6 bar is cooled in the heat
exchanger and leaves it at 100° C: The cabin is to be maintained at 20° C
and 1 bar. The pressure loss between the second cooling turbine and cabin
is 0.1 bar. If the isentropic efficiency for the main compressor and both of
the cooling turbines are 85% and 80% respectively, find:
1. mass flow rate of air supplied to cabin to take a cabin load of 10 tonnes
of refrigeration ;
2. quantity of air passing through the heat exchanger if the temperature
rise of ram air is limited to 80 K ;
3. power used to drive the cooling fan; and
4. C.O.P. of the system.

Regenerative Cooling System

Main Compressor
C1 Rammed Air Ambient Air
Primary Heat
Exchanger m1
Regenerative
Heat Exchanger
Regenerative
Cooling Air Outlets
Air Exit T m2
ma
ma + m2 = m1 Cold Air to
Cabin

Compressor Discharge
Pressure
T 3
Process 1-2: Diffuser converts part 4
of the kinetic energy into pressure 5
→ Ramming Ram Air
2 Pressure
Process 2-3: compression in the Cabin Pressure

main compressor
Ambient Pressure
Process 3-4: high pressure and 7 1

high temperature air is first cooled 6
in a primary heat exchanger
S
Process 4-5: Further cooling of air takes place in a Regenerative Heat Exchanger by means
of a part of cold air coming from turbine
Process 5-6: expansion of air to desired cabin pressure and temperature takes place in a
cooling turbine with expansion of air
Process 6-7 net refrigeration effect maintained inside the cabin


Compressor
3 Discharge Pressure
T
4
5
Ram Air
2 Pressure
Cabin Pressure
Ambient Pressure
7 1
6
S
Compressors Heat Turbines Ground

Exchangers Cooling
Simple Air
Cooling 1 1 1 Yes
Boot Strap 2 2 1 No
Reduced
Ambient Air 1 1 2 Yes
Regenerative
Cooling 1 2 1 Yes

Comparison of Various Air-cooling systems used for aircraft
Simple system is preferable at low speeds

Air Speed > 1000 km/hr, it is imperative to use regenerative or Boot-strap system
Reduced ambient system may be useful for supersonic aircrafts and rockets
Example
A regenerative air-refrigeration system is designed to take 20 tonnes of
refrigeration load of an aircraft cabin. The ambient air at pressure 0.8 bar
and temperature 10 oC is rammed isentropically till the pressure rises to
1.2 bar. The air bled off the main compressor at 4.5 bar is cooled by the
rammed air in the heat exchanger whose effectiveness is 0.60. The air
from the heat exchanger is further cooled to 60 oC in the regenerative heat
exchanger with a portion of the air bled after expansion in the cooling
turbine. The cabin is to be maintained at a temperature of 25 oC and a
pressure of 1 bar. The isentropic efficiencies of the compressor and
turbine are 90 percent and 80 percent respectively. The temperature of air
leaving the regenerative HE is 100 oC. Determine the following:
(i) Mass of air bled from cooling turbine to be used for regenerative
cooling.
(ii) Power required for maintaining the cabin at required condition.
(iii) COP of the system.

Example
1
2
4 State 1 = P1 = 0.8, T1=10

3 State 2 = P2 = 1.2, n23 = 0.90
6 7
State 3 = P3= 4.5,
5 State 4 = n34 = 0.6, P=4.5
8
State 5 = T = 60, n56 = 0.80, p=4.5
State 6 = P=1,
State 7 = Q67 = 20 tonnes, T=25, 1bar
States 8 = t=100
Cp = 1.005
Y = 1.4
N23 = T3-T2/T3’-T2
N34 = T3’-T4/T3’-T2
N56 = T5-T6’/T5-T6
Question 2 A regenerative air-refrigeration system is designed to take 20
tonnes of refrigeration load of an aircraft cabin. The ambient air at pressure
0.8 bar and temperature 10 °C is rammed isentropically till the pressure rises
to 1.2 bar. The air bled off the main compressor at 4.5 bar is cooled by the
rammed air in the heat exchanger whose effectiveness is 0.60. The air from
the heat exchanger is further cooled to 60 °C in the regenerative heat
exchanger with a portion of the air bled after expansion in the cooling
turbine. The cabin is to be maintained at a temperature of 25 °C and a
pressure of 1 bar. The isentropic efficiencies of the compressor and turbine
are 90 percent and 80 percent respectively. The temperature of air leaving
the regenerative HE is 100 °C. Determine the following: (i) Mass of air bled
from cooling turbine to be used for regenerative cooling. (ii) Power required
for maintaining the cabin at required condition. (iii) COP of the system


Topic 2 - Vapor Compression and Air, Refrigeration Cycles

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Topic 2 - Vapor Compression and Air, Refrigeration Cycles

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Topic – 2

Vapor Compression cycle

 Refrigeration & Air-Conditioning by Wilbert F.

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME NUST

o The Carnot Cycle

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME NUST

The Carnot Cycle

 A measure of the maximum possible conversion of heat energy into

Process 1-2: Adiabatic Compression

The Carnot Cycle

 Heat supplied during isothermal expansion (2-3) T2=T3

 work done = Heat supplied – Heat rejected

= T2 (SB – SA) – T1 (SB – SA) Process 1-2: adiabatic compression

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME NUST

Reversed Carnot Cycle (i.e. Carnot Cycle for Refrigeration Cycle)

 A measure of the maximum performance to be obtained from a refrigerating

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME NUST

Reversed Carnot Cycle (i.e. Carnot Cycle for Refrigeration Cycle)

 Heat absorbed from the low temperature source 3 2

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME NUST

Coefficient of Performance (COP)

 Ratio of output to input would be misleading for a 3 2

1-2: Adiabatic compression

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME NUST

Conditions for Highest Coefficient of Performance

 Useful Refrigeration is the heat transferred in

 Area enclosed in rectangle 1-2-3-4 represents Refrigeration

= T2 (S2 – S3) – T1 (S1 – S4)

= (T2 – T1) (S1 – S4) = Area of rectangle

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME NUST

Coefficient of Performance (COP)

 COP indicates that a given amount of

 COP of the Reversed Carnot Cycle is entirely a 4 1

o Hot body temperature T should be as low as possible

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME NUST

 All refrigeration works against certain temperature limitations

o Cold room to be maintained at -20 C or 253 K

o Reject heat to the atmosphere at 30 C or 303 K

refrigerant temperature must be

 Duringthe Refrigeration Process, refrigerant

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME NUST

 we can keep the Δt as small as possible T Δt

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME NUST

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME NUST

Carnot Heat Pump

𝑻𝟐 ሺ𝑺𝟏 − 𝑺𝟒 ሻ 𝑻𝟐 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒓𝒆𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅

 COP of Refrigeration Cycle with the same S

(a) Calculate the coefficient of performance of this refrigeration cycle.

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME NUST

The capacity of a refrigerator is 200 TR when working between – 6 °C and 25 oC.

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME NUST

Carnot Refrigeration Cycle for Vapor as Refrigerant

 Cycle differs from the Carnot cycle by the x

 Effect of area x is to increase the work required,

 Effect of area y is to increase the work required S

 Both these effects of areas x and y reduce the COP

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME NUST

Revision of the Carnot Cycle

Wet Compression versus Dry Compression

 The Compression process 1-2 is called wet

cylinder by the rising piston and may damage the Liquid

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME NUST

Revision of the Carnot Cycle

Wet Compression versus Dry Compression