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E1 6(12 k BT ) 3k BT
Classical Heat Capacity
[later QM showed En n 2
1
is actually correct]
being in level n) e
n 0
En / kT
(Boltzmann factor)
Average total n
E e En / kT
n e n / kT
Using Planck’s equation: U 3N n 0 Now let x
kT
e
n 0
n / kT
d nx d x n
ne nx
Which can e e
dx n 0 dx n 0
U 3 N n 0
be rewritten: U 3N
3 N
e
n 0
nx
e
n 0
nx
e
n 0
x n
1
1 ex
e
Now we can use
the infinite sum:
n 0
xn
1 x
for x 1 To give: x n
1 e x
x
e 1
n 0
d ex
x
So we obtain: dx e 1 3 N 3 N
U 3 N
ex e x 1 e / kT 1
x
e 1
At last…the Heat Capacity!
d U d 3 N A
Using our previous definition: CV / kT
dT n V dT e 1
CV
3N A e / kT 3R e
kT 2
2
kT
/ kT
Differentiating:
e / kT
1
2
e 1 / kT 2
e
E /T
1 2
Limiting Behavior of CV(T)
High T limit:
E
1 CV
3R
(T )
T
1
E 2 E
3R
T
T
1 1
E
T
2
3R e
E 2 E /T
3R e
E E 2
Low T limit: 1 E / T
CV (T ) T
T
e
E /T 2 T
3R
These predictions are
qualitatively correct: CV 3R
CV
for large T and CV 0 as T 0:
T/E
But Let’s Take a Closer Look:
High T behavior:
Reasonable
agreement with
experiment
Low T behavior:
CV 0 too quickly
as T 0 !
B. The Debye Model (1912)
Despite its success in reproducing the approach of CV 0 as T 0, the
Einstein model is clearly deficient at very low T. What might be wrong with
the assumptions it makes?
2u E 2u
2
for wave propagation along the x-direction
t x 2
2u 2
2 u E So the wave speed is independent of
2
v we find that v wavelength for an elastic medium!
t x 2
(k ) is called the
v dispersion relation of
2f 2 kv
the solid, and here it is
linear (no dispersion!)
d
group velocity v g k
dk
D. 1-D Monatomic Lattice
By contrast to a continuous solid, a real solid is not uniform on an atomic
scale, and thus it will exhibit dispersion. Consider a 1-D chain of atoms:
M
a
In equilibrium:
s 1 s s 1 s p
Longitudinal wave:
u s 1 us u s 1 us p
p = atom label
For atom s, Fs c p u s p u s p = 1 nearest neighbors
p
p = 2 next nearest neighbors
cp = force constant for atom p
1-D Monatomic Lattice: Equation of Motion
2u s
Now we use Newton’s second law: Fs M 2 c p u s p u s
t p
Thus:
Mu (i ) 2 ei ( ksa t ) c p uei ( k ( s p ) a t ) uei ( ksat )
p
Or:
M 2e i ( ksa t ) e i ( ksa t ) c p e ikpa 1
p
So:
M 2 c p e ikpa 1 Now since c-p = cp by symmetry,
p
M 2 c p eikpa e ikpa 2 2c p cos(kpa) 1
p 0 p 0
1-D Monatomic Lattice: Solution!
2 4
The result is: 2
M
c p (1 cos(kpa))
p 0 M
p ( 2 kpa)
c sin
p 0
2 1
The result is periodic in k
and the only unique 4c1
M
solutions that are
physically meaningful
correspond to values in
k
the range:
k
a a 2 2
0
a a a a
Dispersion Relations: Theory vs. Experiment
In a 3-D atomic lattice we
expect to observe 3 different
branches of the dispersion
relation, since there are two
mutually perpendicular
transverse wave patterns in
addition to the longitudinal
pattern we have considered.
3
# modes dN N ( )d N ( E )dE N (k )d k
First step: simplify problem by using periodic boundary conditions for the
linear chain of atoms:
s+N-1 We assume atoms s
L = Na and s+N have the
same displacement—
s the lattice has periodic
behavior, where N is
s+1 very large.
x = sa x = (s+N)a
s+2
First: finding N(k)
Since atoms s and s+N have the same displacement, we can write:
# of modes 1 Na L
Thus, in 1-D:
interval of k space k 2 2
Next: finding N()
Now for a 3-D lattice we can apply periodic boundary N3c
conditions to a sample of N1 x N2 x N3 atoms:
N 2b
# of modes N a N 2 b N 3c V N 1a
1 3 N (k )
volume of k space 2 2 2 8
A very similar result holds for N(E) using constant energy surfaces for the
density of electron states in a periodic lattice!
This equation gives the prescription for calculating the density of modes
N() if we know the dispersion relation (k).
We can now set up the Debye’s calculation of the heat capacity of a solid.
F. The Debye Model Calculation
We know that we need to evaluate an upper limit for the heat capacity integral:
max
CV (T )
N ( ) C
0
E ( , T ) d
If the dispersion relation is known, the upper limit will be the maximum value.
But Debye made several simple assumptions, consistent with a uniform,
isotropic, elastic solid:
• max given by the value that gives the correct number of modes per polarization (N)
N() in the Debye Model
d V 1 V
3
First we can evaluate vg N ( ) dS dS
3
the density of modes: dk 8 v g 8 v g
Giving:
V 2 V 2 for one polarization
N ( ) 3 4k
8 v g 2 2 v g3
Next we need to find the upper limit for the integral over the allowed range of
frequencies.
max in the Debye Model
max
Since there are N atoms in the solid, there are N unique
modes of vibration for each polarization. This requires:
N ( )d N
0
max 3 1/ 3
V Vmax 6 N
2
2
Giving: d 2 3 N max v g D
2 2 v g3 0
6 v g V
The Debye cutoff frequency
Now the pieces are in place to evaluate the heat capacity using the Debye
model! This is the subject of problem 5.2 in Myers’ book. Remember that
there are three polarizations, so you should add a factor of 3 in the expression
for CV. If you follow the instructions in the problem, you should obtain:
Universal behavior
for all solids!
Debye temperature
is related to
“stiffness” of solid,
as expected
Debye Model at
low T: Theory vs.
Expt.
Quite impressive
agreement with
predicted CV T3
dependence for Ar!
(noble gas solid)