STRUCTURE

IN GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING, SOIL

STRUCTURE DESCRIBES THE
ARRANGEMENT OF THE SOLID PARTS
OF THE SOIL AND OF THE PORE SPACE
LOCATED BETWEEN THEM. IT IS
DETERMINED BY HOW INDIVIDUAL
SOIL GRANULES CLUMP, BIND
TOGETHER, AND AGGREGATE,
RESULTING IN THE ARRANGEMENT OF
SOIL PORES BETWEEN THEM. SOIL HAS
A MAJOR INFLUENCE ON WATER AND
AIR MOVEMENT, BIOLOGICAL
ACTIVITY, ROOT GROWTH AND
SEEDLING EMERGENCE. THERE ARE
SEVERAL DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOIL
STRUCTURE. IT IS INHERENTLY A
DYNAMIC AND COMPLEX SYSTEM
THAT IS AFFECTED BY DIFFERENT
• SOIL STRUCTURE DESCRIBES THE
ARRANGEMENT OF THE SOLID PARTS OF
THE SOIL AND OF THE PORE SPACES
LOCATED BETWEEN THEM (MARSHALL &
HOLMES, 1979). AGGREGATION IS THE
RESULT OF THE INTERACTION OF SOIL
PARTICLES THROUGH REARRANGEMENT,
FLOCCULATION AND CEMENTATION. IT IS
ENHANCED BY: THE PRECIPITATION OF
OXIDES, HYDROXIDES, CARBONATES
AND SILICATES; THE PRODUCTS OF
BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY (SUCH AS
BIOFILMS, FUNGAL HYPHAE AND
GLYCOPROTEINS); IONIC BRIDGING
BETWEEN NEGATIVELY CHARGED
PARTICLES (BOTH CLAY MINERALS AND
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS) BY
MULTIVALENT CATIONS; AND
INTERACTIONS BETWEEN ORGANIC
COMPOUNDS (HYDROGEN BONDING AND
HYDROPHOBIC BONDING).
THE QUALITY OF SOIL STRUCTURE WILL
DECLINE UNDER MOST FORMS OF
CULTIVATION—THE ASSOCIATED
MECHANICAL MIXING OF THE SOIL
COMPACTS AND SHEARS AGGREGATES AND
FILLS PORE SPACES; IT ALSO EXPOSES
ORGANIC MATTER TO A GREATER RATE OF
DECAY AND OXIDATION. A FURTHER
CONSEQUENCE OF CONTINUED CULTIVATION
AND TRAFFIC IS THE DEVELOPMENT OF
COMPACTED, IMPERMEABLE LAYERS
OR‘PANS’ WITHIN THE PROFILE.
• THE DECLINE OF SOIL STRUCTURE UNDER
IRRIGATION IS USUALLY RELATED TO THE
BREAKDOWN OF AGGREGATES AND
DISPERSION OF CLAY MATERIAL AS A
RESULT OF RAPID WETTING. THIS IS
PARTICULARLY SO IF SOILS ARE SODIC;
THAT IS, HAVING A HIGH EXCHANGEABLE
SODIUM PERCENTAGE (ESP) OF THE
CATIONS ATTACHED TO THE CLAYS. HIGH
SODIUM LEVELS (COMPARED TO HIGH
CALCIUM LEVELS) CAUSE PARTICLES TO
REPEL ONE ANOTHER WHEN WET, AND THE
ASSOCIATED AGGREGATES TO
DISAGGREGATE AND DISPERSE. THE ESP
WILL INCREASE IF IRRIGATION CAUSES
SALTY WATER (EVEN OF LOW
CONCENTRATION) TO GAIN ACCESS TO
THE SOIL.
UNDERTAKEN TO PRESERVE AND
IMPROVE SOIL STRUCTURE. FOR
EXAMPLE, THE NSW DEPARTMENT OF
LAND AND WATER CONSERVATION
ADVOCATES: INCREASING ORGANIC
CONTENT BY INCORPORATING
PASTURE PHASES INTO CROPPING
ROTATIONS; REDUCING OR
ELIMINATING TILLAGE AND
CULTIVATION IN CROPPING AND
PASTURE ACTIVITIES; AVOIDING SOIL
DISTURBANCE DURING PERIODS OF
EXCESSIVE DRY OR WET WHEN SOILS
MAY ACCORDINGLY TEND TO
SHATTER OR SMEAR; AND ENSURING
SUFFICIENT GROUND COVER TO
PROTECT THE SOIL FROM RAINDROP
IMPACT. IN IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE,
IT MAY BE RECOMMENDED TO: APPLY
GYPSUM (CALCIUM SULFATE) TO
DISPLACE SODIUM CATIONS WITH
CALCIUM AND SO REDUCE ESP OR
SODICITY, AVOID RAPID WETTING,
PLATY – THE UNITS ARE FLAT AND
PLATELIKE. THEY ARE GENERALLY
ORIENTED HORIZONTALLY.
PRISMATIC – THE INDIVIDUAL UNITS
ARE BOUNDED BY FLAT TO ROUNDED
VERTICAL FACES. UNITS ARE
DISTINCTLY LONGER VERTICALLY,
AND THE FACES ARE TYPICALLY
CASTS OR MOLDS OF ADJOINING
UNITS. VERTICES ARE ANGULAR OR
SUBROUNDED; THE TOPS OF THE
PRISMS ARE SOMEWHAT INDISTINCT
AND NORMALLY FLAT. FIGURE 3-17
SHOWS A SOIL PROFILE WITH
PRISMATIC STRUCTURE IN THE
SUBSOIL.
• COLUMNAR – THE UNITS ARE
SIMILAR TO PRISMS AND BOUNDED
BY FLAT OR SLIGHTLY ROUNDED
VERTICAL FACES. THE TOPS OF
COLUMNS, IN CONTRAST TO THOSE
OF PRISMS, ARE VERY DISTINCT
AND NORMALLY ROUNDED.
BLOCKY – THE UNITS ARE BLOCKLIKE OR
POLYHEDRAL. THEY ARE BOUNDED BY FLAT OR
SLIGHTLY ROUNDED SURFACES THAT ARE CASTS
OF THE FACES OF SURROUNDING PEDS.
TYPICALLY, BLOCKY STRUCTURAL UNITS ARE
NEARLY EQUIDIMENSIONAL BUT GRADE TO
PRISMS AND PLATES. THE STRUCTURE IS
DESCRIBED AS ANGULAR BLOCKY (FIG. 3-18) IF
THE FACES INTERSECT AT RELATIVELY SHARP
ANGLES AND AS SUBANGULAR BLOCKY IF THE
FACES ARE A MIXTURE OF ROUNDED AND PLANE
FACES AND THE CORNERS ARE MOSTLY
ROUNDED.
GRANULAR – THE UNITS ARE APPROXIMATELY
SPHERICAL OR POLYHEDRAL. THEY ARE
BOUNDED BY CURVED OR VERY IRREGULAR
FACES THAT ARE NOT CASTS OF ADJOINING PEDS.
WEDGE – THE UNITS ARE APPROXIMATELY
ELLIPTICAL WITH INTERLOCKING LENSES THAT
TERMINATE IN ACUTE ANGLES. THEY ARE
COMMONLY BOUNDED BY SMALL SLICKENSIDES.
• LENTICULAR —THE UNITS ARE OVERLAPPING
LENSES PARALLEL TO THE SOIL SURFACE.
THEY ARE THICKEST IN THE MIDDLE AND THIN
TOWARDS THE EDGES. LENTICULAR
STRUCTURE IS COMMONLY ASSOCIATED WITH
MOIST SOILS, TEXTURE CLASSES HIGH IN SILT
OR VERY FINE SAND (E.G., SILT LOAM), AND
HIGH POTENTIAL FOR FROST ACTION.
THE BENEFITS OF IMPROVING SOIL STRUCTURE
FOR THE GROWTH OF PLANTS, PARTICULARLY IN
AN AGRICULTURAL SETTING, INCLUDE:
REDUCED EROSION DUE TO GREATER SOIL
AGGREGATE STRENGTH AND DECREASED
OVERLAND FLOW; IMPROVED ROOT
PENETRATION AND ACCESS TO SOIL MOISTURE
AND NUTRIENTS; IMPROVED EMERGENCE OF
SEEDLINGS DUE TO REDUCED CRUSTING OF THE
SURFACE; AND GREATER WATER INFILTRATION,
RETENTION AND AVAILABILITY DUE TO
IMPROVED POROSITY.
• PRODUCTIVITY FROM IRRIGATED NO-TILLAGE
OR MINIMUM TILLAGE SOIL MANAGEMENT IN
HORTICULTURE USUALLY DECREASES OVER
TIME DUE TO DEGRADATION OF THE SOIL
STRUCTURE, INHIBITING ROOT GROWTH AND
WATER RETENTION. THERE ARE A FEW
EXCEPTIONS, WHY SUCH EXCEPTIONAL
FIELDS RETAIN STRUCTURE IS UNKNOWN,
BUT IT IS ASSOCIATED WITH HIGH ORGANIC
MATTER. IMPROVING SOIL STRUCTURE IN
SUCH SETTINGS CAN INCREASE YIELDS
SIGNIFICANTLY. THE NSW DEPARTMENT OF
LAND AND WATER CONSERVATION SUGGESTS
THAT IN CROPPING SYSTEMS, WHEAT YIELDS
CAN BE INCREASED BY 10 KG/HA FOR EVERY
EXTRA MILLIMETRE OF RAIN THAT IS ABLE TO
INFILTRATE DUE TO SOIL STRUCTURE.
HARDSETTING SOILS LOSE THEIR STRUCTURE WHEN WET
AND THEN SET HARD AS THEY DRY OUT TO FORM A
STRUCTURELESS MASS THAT IS VERY DIFFICULT TO
CULTIVATE. THEY CAN ONLY BE TILLED WHEN THEIR
MOISTURE CONTENT IS WITHIN A LIMITED RANGE. WHEN
THEY ARE TILLED THE RESULT IS OFTEN A VERY CLODDY
SURFACE (POOR TILTH). AS THEY DRY OUT THE HIGH SOIL
STRENGTH OFTEN RESTRICTS SEEDLING AND ROOT
GROWTH. INFILTRATION RATES ARE LOW AND RUNOFF OF
RAIN AND IRRIGATION LIMITS THE PRODUCTIVITY OF
MANY HARDSETTING SOILS.
DEFINITION
• HARDSETTING HAS BEEN DEFINED THIS WAY: «A
HARDSETTING SOIL IS ONE THAT SETS TO AN ALMOST
HOMOGENEOUS MASS ON DRYING. IT MAY HAVE
OCCASIONAL CRACKS, TYPICALLY AT A SPACING OF >0.1
M. AIR DRY HARDSET SOIL IS HARD AND BRITTLE, AND IT
IS NOT POSSIBLE TO PUSH A FOREFINGER INTO THE
PROFILE FACE. TYPICALLY, IT HAS A TENSILE STRENGTH
OF 90 KN–2. SOILS THAT CRUST ARE NOT NECESSARILY
HARDSETTING SINCE A HARDSETTING HORIZON IS
THICKER THAN A CRUST. (IN CULTIVATED SOILS THE
THICKNESS OF THE HARDSETTING HORIZON IS
FREQUENTLY EQUAL TO OR GREATER THAN THAT OF THE
CULTIVATED LAYER.) HARDSETTING SOIL IS NOT
PERMANENTLY CEMENTED AND IS SOFT WHEN WET. THE
CLODS IN A HARDSETTING HORIZON THAT HAS BEEN
CULTIVATED WILL PARTIALLY OR TOTALLY
DISINTEGRATE UPON WETTING. IF THE SOIL HAS BEEN
SUFFICIENTLY WETTED, IT WILL REVERT TO ITS HARDSET
STATE ON DRYING. THIS CAN HAPPEN AFTER FLOOD
IRRIGATION OR A SINGLE INTENSE RAINFALL EVENT.»
DYNAMIC AND COMPLEX SYSTEM
THAT IS AFFECTED BY DIFFERENT
FACTORS SUCH AS TILLAGE, WHEEL
TRAFFIC, ROOTS, BIOLOGICAL
ACTIVITIES IN SOIL, RAINFALL
EVENTS, WIND EROSION,
SHRINKING, SWELLING, FREEZING
AND THAWING. IN TURN,
RECIPROCALLY SOIL STRUCTURE
INTERACTS AND AFFECTS THE ROOT
GROWTH AND FUNCTION, SOIL
FAUNA AND BIOTA, WATER AND
SOLUTE TRANSPORT PROCESSES,
GAS EXCHANGE, THERMAL
CONDUCTIVITY AND ELECTRICAL
CONDUCTIVITY, TRAFFIC BEARING
CAPACITY, AND MANY OTHER
ASPECTS IN RELATION WITH SOIL.
IGNORING SOIL STRUCTURE OR
VIEWING IT AS «STATIC» CAN LEAD
TO POOR PREDICTIONS OF SOIL
PROPERTIES AND MIGHT