VM 561

VETERINARY PUBLIC HEALTH II

Dr. H. A. Ngowi

November 2012
HUMANE HANDLING, TRANSPORT AND SLAUGHTER OF LIVESTOCK

 Introduction

 Animal stress and pain

 Effects of stress and injury on meat and by-product quality

 Selecting animals for slaughter

 Transport, handling and care of animals

 Slaughter practices and techniques

 Conditions that may be encountered at meat inspection

 INTRODUCTION

• Livestock referred to in this context are animals from which meat

for human consumption is produced

• Types of food animals vary in different parts of the world

• In this course, we will refer to:

– Cattle
– Goats
– Sheep
– Pigs
– Poultry
– Game
 INTRODUCTION …

• Transformation of slaughter animals into meat is a chain of events:

– Handling and loading on the farm;
– Transport to the market;
– Off-loading and holding
– Slaughtering

• During these procedures, poor practices and facilities will lead to unnecessary
suffering, injury and loss of production

• Improving conditions for slaughter animals will improve:

– Productivity (lower mortality, increase quality of meat, hides and skins)
– animal welfare (reduce animal suffering and possible injuries to personnel)
– personnel safety
 ANIMAL STRESS AND PAIN
• Scientific research has shown that warm-blooded animals feel pain
and the emotion of fear

• Especially mammals have brain structures that enable them to feel

fear and suffering from pain

• It is presumed that such animals suffer pain same way as humans

• Fear and pain are very strong causes of stress in livestock and stress
affects the quality of meat
 ANIMAL STRESS AND PAIN …
• Pain also affects meat quality and it is usually the effect of injury
and suffering

• It is people’s moral responsibility to ensure that the welfare of

animals is cared for and they do not suffer unnecessary discomfort,
stress or injury
EFFECTS OF STRESS & INJURY ON MEAT & BY-PRODUCT QUALITY

• The energy for muscle activity in a live animal comes from sugars
(glycogen) in the muscle

• After slaughter, the muscle glycogen is converted into lactic acid

and the carcass becomes firm (rigor mortis)

• Lactic acid is necessary for tenderness and good quality of meat

• An animal stressed before or during slaughter will have low

glycogen and lactic acid levels, and hence, poor meat quality
 EFFECTS OF STRESS & INJURY ON MEAT & BY-PRODUCT …

Pale Soft Exudative (PSE) meat

• Occurs in pigs

• Caused by severe, short-term stress just prior to slaughter

• E.g., bad handling, fighting in the pen, bad stunning technique

• May lead to rapid breakdown of muscle glycogen with pronounced

acidity (pH 5.4-5.6) immediately after slaughter
• The meat becomes pale, soft and with poor flavour

• The meat can be difficult to use or cannot be processed

• Sufficient resting of pigs prior to slaughter can reduce PSE risk

 EFFECTS OF STRESS & INJURY ON MEAT & BY-PRODUCT …

Dark Firm and Dry (DFD) meat

• Can occur in cattle, sheep, pigs and turkeys soon after slaughter

• The meat is darker, drier and firmer than normal

• After slaughter there is little lactic acid production due to stress

• The meat is of poor quality, short life and with high pH (6.4-6.8)
 EFFECTS OF STRESS & INJURY ON MEAT & BY-PRODUCT …

Spoilage of meat
• Lactic acid in the muscle retards the growth of bacteria that have
contaminated the carcass during slaughtering and dressing

• The bacteria could lead to spoilage of the meat

• An ideal pH of the meat measured 24 hours after slaughter should

be  6.2
 EFFECTS OF STRESS & INJURY ON MEAT & BY-PRODUCT …

Bruising
• Causes escape of blood from damaged blood vessels

• Caused by a physical blow by a stick/stone/animal horn/metal

projections etc

• Can vary in size from small to very large bruises

• The meat
– Not acceptable to the consumer
– Cannot be manufactured
– Spoils rapidly
 EFFECTS OF STRESS & INJURY ON MEAT & BY-PRODUCT …

Hides and skin quality

• Hides and skins have the higher value than any other animal by-
product (skins of pigs and poultry are edible)

• Bad handling of animals can damage hides and skin, e.g. through:
– Over branding
– Injuries from various causes
– Unsuitable handling facilities
– Badly designed transport vehicles
– Dragging the animal
– Forceful hitting or throwing the animal
 SELECTING ANIMALS FOR SLAUGHTER

(a) Influence of traditional preference

• In most tropical countries, mature animals are preferred for

slaughter because:
- Their meats fit well with most food preparations
- Most people prefer chewable rather than tender meat
- Taboos against slaughter of younger animals

• In many temperate countries, meat from young animals may be

preferred over that from old animals
 Criteria for selection of animals for slaughter

(b) Health aspect

• Animals for slaughter should be free from diseases and not

pregnant

• Obvious signs of a healthy animal are:

- Quick and smart appearance
- Well-disposed body reflexes even when resting
- Move easily and steadily
- Normal health parameters (e.g. cardinal parameters)

• Animals in advanced state of pregnancy have their blood

contaminated with foetal waste materials
 Criteria for selection of animals for slaughter …

(c) Quality aspect

Maturity

• A mature animal means a fully developed animal

• For example, mature sheep may be either:

- Lamb (<1 year)
- Yearling (~1 year)
- Mutton (1-2 years)
Criteria for selection of animals for slaughter …

Meatiness

• For a well-fattened animal, the heavier the animal, the

higher the dressing percentage

• However, the following factors may lower the dressing

percentage despite high animal weight:
- Animal with thick skin, pelt or heavy cover of hair
- Animal with high gut fill
 Criteria for selection of animals for slaughter …

Body conformation

• The following types of animals will provide good-quality and

meats:
- Animals that are round and full-bodied
- Animals with short neck and legs

• Bulk and wide-framed configurations (e.g. in some Zebu) often

reflect both poor conformation and low meatiness

• Poorly nourished animals should first be fattened

 TRANSPORT OF ANIMALS
• The need to transport animals for occurs mostly in commercial
farming and to a lesser extent in rural or subsistence farming

• Poor transportation can have serious bad effects on animal welfare,

productivity and meat quality

• Effects of animal transportation:

Stress Bloat
Bruising Poisoning
Trampling Predation
Dehydration
Suffoction
Exhaustion
Heart failure Injuries
Heat stroke Fighting
Sun burn
 TRANSPORT OF ANIMALS

• There are several means used to transport animals for slaughter

from the farm to the slaughter place
- On hoof (trekking)
- By vehicle
- By train
- By ship
- By aeroplane

• Trekking is the commonest means of transporting animals to

abattoirs or collection yards in the tropics
 TRANSPORT OF ANIMALS …

• Any means of transportation used should:

- Prevent of disease spread
- Assure high standard of hygiene
- Avoid unnecessary suffering of animals

• It is more advantageous to transport live animals than meat

because:
- Equipment for transporting live animals need less capital
- Direct transport cost per head is lower in live animals
- Transport of meat needs to have a direct link to the markets
- Most consumers in the tropics prefer “hot” meat
 TRANSPORT OF ANIMALS …

• Road transport is probably the most convenient means of

conveying animals because it affords more direct links with
production and marketing centres

• Precautions in road/wagon transporting animals

- Trucks must be specially designed/modified for stock transp
- Trucks should allow ample ventilation and lighting
- If open, the top should be covered with canvas materials
- The truck should allow easy loading and off-loading
- The vehicle should have compartments for animal categories
 TRANSPORT OF ANIMALS …

- Animals should not be over- or under-crowded to avoid injuries and

suffocation

- The vehicle should allow easy cleaning and disinfection

- The floor should be non-slippery and the walls no projections

- Avoid sudden start or stop

- Reduce number of stopping to reduce animal fighting

- Animals from different sources should be mixed some days before trucking
them to reduce fighting on transit
 TRANSPORT OF ANIMALS …

- Separate animal species, sex, age-groups, horned, litters

- Load animals not more than 2-3 hours before transportation

- Include competent drivers and animal attendants

- Avoid exciting or violently beating animals at loading/off-load

- Immediately upon off-loading:

- Separate sick/fatigue animals from healthy ones
- Wash and disinfect the truck (or sweep and sprinkle with sawdust)
Problems associated with transportation of animals

(i) Loss of weight (shrinkage)

(ii) Injury
(iii) Suffocation
(iv) Diseases induced by the journey
(v) Others
 Problems associated with transportation of animals …

Loss of weight (shrinkage)

• During long transportation animals lose considerable weight

referred to as “shrinkage”

• Loss of weight is influenced by species, breed, body condition,

and nutrition before transportation
- Pig loses weight more than cattle
- Zebu tolerate long journey better than European cattle
- Fat animals lose more weight than lean animals
- Long journey without water and food increases weight loss
 Problems associated with transportation of animals …

• On average, cattle in the tropics will lose approx 18-23 kg in 48

hours of transportation

• Prolonged journey without water and food can result in a loss of

appox 20% of live weight

• Transported animals should be provided with water and food in

holding grounds or allowed to graze and drink water in case of
trekking

• If possible, animals should be transported in stock routes to allow

veterinary services
 Problems associated with transportation of animals …

• “Shrink” is the amount of weight an animal loses due to stress

caused by handling or environmental changes

• It is the difference between gross body weight before stressed and

net sell weight after stressed

• Shrink represents a loss in value

• Shrinkage mostly occurs in the first few hours of handling and

loading. It levels off on transit and triggered again during
offloading activities
 Problems associated with transportation of animals …

Excretory shrinkage (fill shrinkage)

- Due to of loss of contents in the belly, GIT, and bladder
- Occurs soon after the animal is stressed
- Recovered quickly after the animal is fed, watered, and rested

Tissue shrinkage
- Due to loss of fluid from body tissues
- Due to long and stressful transportation without feed & water
- In cattle it occurs when the animal experiences >6% wt loss
- Recovery may take 10-36 days
- Excessive shrinkage can result in dark firm dry meat
 Problems associated with transportation of animals …

• Over-loading the vehicle increases shrinkage due to increased

stress

• Under-loading the vehicle increases shrinkage due to excessive

movement of animals

• Bedding should be provided to improve footing

• Markets for cattle should be planned ahead to avoid long standing

of cattle

• If possible weigh cattle at the farm or directly off-truck

 Problems associated with transportation of animals …

Injury

• Bruising is the major injury in animals transported

• Causes of bruising:
- Lack of bedding
- Mixing of horned and polled animals
- Over- or under-loading
- Long delays in transit
- Excessive beating of animals
 Problems associated with transportation of animals …

Suffocation

• Animals transported by sea/lake are mostly susceptible to

suffocation

• Pigs and sheep are more susceptible to suffocation

• Steaming up of glasses is an indication of suffocation

• Can be prevented by ventilating the cubicles

 Problems associated with transportation of animals …

Diseases induced by journey

Read about the following disease conditions

• Transit tetany
• Transit fever
• Transit erytherma
• Trypanosomiasis

Other conditions
• General fatigue
• Systemic infections due to insufficient water and feed
Moving cattle on the hoof
Vehicle for cattle transportation (floor prevent slipping)
Large truck transporting cattle
Rail truck for cattle transportation
Double-deck truck for transporting sheep/goats
Crates for transporting chicken
Well-ventilated truck for transporting pigs
Cattle leg protruding through broken truck floor
Poor offloading facility
Overloading truck with goats
Goats trampled in the back of a truck
Overloading truck with water buffaloes
Unsuitable transport of a pig in a basket
Unsuitable transport of ducks on a motorcycle
Unsuitable transport of chicken in a rickshwa
Malpractice of loading different animal species together
 ANIMAL HOLDING AND CARE

• Animals fit for slaughter within 24 hours should be rested at the

lairage

• Animals to be slaughtered in the future should be kept in a

kraal/pen/holding yard

• During resting:
- Animals should not be excited
- Animals should be provided with clean water ad lib
- Feed should be withheld at least 8 hours before slaughter
- Antemortem exam should be done 12 hours before slaughter
Importance of resting the animals
• Improves carcass quality
• Allows the gut to empty. Hence:
- Few nutrients in the blood and body cells - less spoilage
- Ease evisceration
- Reduces chances for carcass contamination

Importance of watering animals for slaughter

• Replace water lost during transportation
• Flush out bacterial load from the gut
• Ease flaying
 SLAUGHTER PRACTICES AND TECHNIQUES

• Slaughter methods prevailing throughout the world are governed

by either by tradition, ritual or legislation depending upon the
people or country

• Ritualistic or religious slaughter

- Often requires the animal to be conscious at slaughter
- Examples – Jewish and Islamic slaughters
- Stunning might not be allowed
- Some Asian and African cultures also slaughter animals in conscious state,
though not necessarily in ritualistic context
• Most legislations require the animal be rendered unconscious prior
to slaughtering

• This is referred to as “humane slaughter”

• The essentials in the humane slaughter are:

- Avoid unnecessary suffering of the animal
- Ensure complete bleeding

• Humane slaughter consists of two stages:

- Stunning - to render the animal unconscious
- Bleeding - to kill the animal
 Stunning

• There are several methods of stunning

• The choice of the method of stunning depends on:

- Class of animal
- Humane aspects
- Cost
- Efficiency of equipment
- Ease of operation
- Safety of personnel
- Effects on carcass and brain
- Religious and legal requirements
1. Physical stunning

Captive bolt pistol

• A bolt attached to the pistol is propelled forward on discharging of
the blank cartridge and automatically recoils into the barrel

• The bolt may penetrate the frontal bone or cause concussion

without penetration

• Choose the correct strength of cartridge and points of application

for each animal species - (ref Gracey)
Free bullet pistol
• Commonly used in horses and sometimes cattle

• Destroys the brain – inedible

• Less preferred

Hammer
• Old method
• Prohibited in some countries
• A quick blow at the back of the neck – better in shoat
 Targets for mechanical stunning

CATTLE
• Aim at the point halfway between the top of the head and the
imaginary line between the eyes;

• Place the muzzle at right angles to the frontal surface

 Targets for mechanical stunning …

PIGS
Place the muzzle about 2.5 cm to 5 cm above the level of
the eyes, and at right angles to the frontal surface
 Targets for mechanical stunning …

HORNELESS SHEEP
Use the highest point of the head and aim towards the angle of
the jaw
 Targets for mechanical stunning …

HORNED SHEEP
Place the muzzle just behind the ridge which runs between the
horns and aim towards the mouth
 Targets for mechanical stunning …

GOATS
Hornless – Use the highest point of the head and aim towards
the angle of the jaw

Horned – Place the muzzle just behind the ridge which runs
between the horns and aim towards the mouth
 Targets for mechanical stunning …

HORSES
Place the muzzle at right angles to the frontal surface well
above the point where two imaginary lines from the eyes
to the ears cross
 Targets for mechanical stunning - summary

Cattle Pigs Horned sheep

Hornless sheep Goats Horses

 Signs of correct mechanical stunning

• The animal collapses immediately and does not attempt to

stand up;

• The body and muscles of the animal become tonic (rigid)

immediately after the shot;

• Normal rhythmic breathing temporarily stops;

• The eyelid is open with the eyeball facing straight ahead and
is not rotated
2. Chemical stunning

• Uses CO2 in the form of liquid under pressure or solid

• Recommended concentration ranges from 65-70%

• Suitable in pigs, shoat, and poultry

• Exposure period should be 45 seconds and the animals should be

slaughtered within 30 seconds
• Apparatus used (eg tunnel) depends on slaughter rate
CO2 stunning of pigs
3. Electrical stunning

• Passing an AC current through brain/heart of animal

• Common applicator resembles a pair of tongs

• Commonly in slaughter of pigs and poultry

• Currents ≥250 mA, and voltage ≥75 V recommended

• Animal should be bled immediately after unconscious

Electrical stunning of pig
Electrical stunning of ostrich
Water bath for electrical stunning of poultry
Effects of stunning on meat quality

Blood splashing
• Occurs in penetrating captive bolt stunning
• Due to delayed sticking after stunning or inadequate penetration

Intracranial haemorrhages
In non-penetrating captive bolts in thin frontal bones

Petechial haemorrhages in connective tissues and fat

In electrical stunning
 Bleeding
• Stunned animals should first be positioned properly for bleeding

• If possible, animals should be shackled by one of their hind leg

and hoisted (raised) to a convenient height for bleeding

• Hoisting the animals facilitates efficient bleeding and collection of

blood for future use

• Shackling of the animals should be as fast as possible to avoid

animals regaining consciousness
• Alternatively, animals can be placed horizontally on a concrete
slab or a strong plastic pallet

• The actual bleeding operation is made by severing major blood

vessels of the neck using a sticking knife

• Adequate time is required to allow complete bleeding. Sheep and

goats require about 2 minutes

• Complete bleeding is important for the subsequent keeping quality

of meat
Cattle

• Two methods of bleeding

1. Bilateral severance of the carotid arteries and jugular veins

- Incision made across the throat region caudal to the larynx

2. An incision in the jugular furrow at the base of the neck

- Knife directed towards the entrance of the chest to sever the
brachiocephalic trunk and anterior vena cava

• Care must be taken not to puncture the pleura causing “back

bleeding” (aspiration of blood into the thoracic cavity)
Sheep

• Usually an incision in the jugular furrow close to the head

- Severs both carotid arteries and jugular veins ± trachea, oesophagus and
spinal cord

• Thoracic inlet bleeding is common

• The cutting of the oesophagus results in the contamination of the

neck, head and blood
Pigs

• The knife is inserted midline of the neck at the depression in

front of the sternum, pushed inward to sever anterior vena cava
± carotid artery

• Too large sticking wound and contaminated scalding water

facilitates the entry of microorganisms through jugular vein and
may lead to taint

Read about slaughter techniques for poultry

Other steps involved in slaughtering of animals food

• Skinning

• Evisceration

• Postmortem inspection

• Handling of animal products, by-products and wastes

Read briefly on the first two. The rest will be covered in

Subsequent lectures and practicals
 GENERAL PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS
ENCOUNTERED DURING MEAT INSPECTION
General pathological conditions may occur in an
animal due various causes, including infectious,
physiological, and nutritional causes

There are many general pathological conditions

that can be encountered during meat inspection.

Only common conditions are discussed here

 Emaciation

Loss of fat and flesh

• Mainly due to pathological conditions, which lower food

intake or increase metabolism

• Commonly in chronic conditions (e.g. TB, helminthosis)

• May also develop rapidly in acute diseases

• May result from prolonged starvation

Postmortem findings
• Serious atrophy of fat especially the pericardial and renal fat*
• The fat is watery, translucent or jelly-like
• Oedema and anaemia may develop
• Reduced size of internal organs and muscular tissue

Judgement
• Condemn if associated with infection (chronic or acute)
• If doubtful, refrigerate carcass 24-48 hrs and pass if it sets

Differential diagnosis
Leanness/Poorness (due to starvation) – fat is sparse but normal
Emaciated cow showing
marked reduction of
muscle mass
Serious atrophy of renal fat

Note petechial haemorrhages

Hanging gelatinous fat
between the spinal process
 Fever (Pyrexia)

Elevation of body temperature in response to infection or

other disease processes
Postmortem findings
Fever due to infection (septic fever) will have the following:
– Rigor mortis - Putrefaction - Enlarged lymph nodes
– Congestion of subcutaneous blood vessels and carcass
– Evidence of cloudy swelling of liver, heart and kidneys

Judgement
• Condemn if associated with pathogens or drugs in blood
• Otherwise, pass conditional to heat treatment

Differential diagnosis
Hyperthermia
 Pigmentation
Coloured substances which accumulate in the body cells
during the normal physiological process and abnormally in
certain tumours and conditions

• May be exogenous (synthesised outside the body) or

endogenous (synthesised within the body)

• Examples of pigmentation due to exogenous pigments:

Anthracosis – condemn the affected organ, pass the carcass

Carotenoid pigmentation – normal (e.g. in jersey cattle), pass

 Melanosis

Melanin deposits in
the sheep viscera

Judgement
•Total condemnation if extensive
•Condemn affected part if localised and pass the carcass
 Myocardial lipofuscinosis

Brown pigmentation of skeletal and heart muscles of cattle (in old

animals and in some chronic wasting diseases)
Judgement
•Condemn affected part and pass carcass if no chronic infection
•Otherwise condemn the carcass
 Congenital porphyria
(osteohemochromatosis, pink tooth)

Brown pigmentation of ribs and

vertebrae in a 6 months old calf

Accumulation of plant or endogenous porphyrins in the blood resulting in

tissue pigmentation and photosensitization – occurs in cattle, sheep, pigs

Postmortem findings – Carcass (including bones/teeth) is dark brown/pink

Judgement – Total or partial condemnation

 Icterus (Jaundice)

Jaundice of an aged cow

caused by liver disease

Judgement
• Condemn if haemolytic or toxic in nature
• Otherwise chill for 24 hrs and pass if the pigment disappears
Yellow discoloration of pig
viscera and carcass caused
by cirrhosis of the liver
 Septicaemia and toxaemia

Septicaemia
Presence of pathogenic bacteria and their toxins in blood
Toxaemia
Presence and rapid proliferation of exotoxins and endotoxins
from microorganisms or body cells in the blood
Some postmortem findings
• Enlarged edematous or haemorrhagic lymph nodes

• Degenerative changes in parenchymatous organs (liver, heart, kidneys)

• Congestion and haemorrhages in organs
• Splenomegaly

• Inadequately bled-out carcass as a result of high fever

• Blood stained serous exudate in abdominal and/or thoracic cavities.

• Anaemia and icterus may also be present

Judgement
• Total condemnation (if possible at antemortem exam)
 Haemorrhage and Haematoma

Escape of blood from blood vessels

Causes:

• Wounds or injuries – most common

• Septicemic infections - may cause petechiae or ecchymoses

• Chemical poisoning

• Vitamin C deficiency
Fractured bone and muscle
haemorrhage in a market hog

Judgement
Condemn affected part and pass the carcass if no infection
Ecchymotic haemorrhage in
the tongue muscle of a cow

Judgement
Total condemnation (petechial and ecchymotic
haemorrhages are usually associated with septicaemia)
Haematoma in the
abdominal wall of an ewe

Judgement
Condemn affected part (the cause is usually trauma)
Haematoma of
the bovine spleen

Judgement
Condemn affected part
 Bruises

Traumas which normally affect superficial tissues

 Extensive bruises
of a beef carcass

Judgement
• Condemn if extensive
• Otherwise pass the carcass for consumption
 Abscesses

Abscess - collection of pus circumscribed by fibrous tissue

Vary greatly in size and distribution

Liver abscesses caused by
Fusobacterium necrophorum

Judgement
•Total condemnation if generalised
•Trim and pass the carcass if localise and capsulated
Secondary abscesses in
the spleen of an aged cow
Tail necrosis caused by biting and secondary spine abscesses
Multiple abscesses in the calf liver as a result of an umbilical infection;
carcass with such condition should be condemned
 Oedema

Presence of abnormal amounts of fluid in the tissue or

body cavities

Common forms at meat inspection:

• Hydrothorax
• Ascites
• Anasarca (e.g. In dewlap or intermaxillary space)

Can be inflammatory or non-inflammatory

 Abdominal oedema
caused by liver disease

Judgement
• Anasarca – total condemnation
• Any oedema + emaciation – total condemnation
• Ascites or hydrothorax alone – detain carcass for 12 hrs and pass if it sets
 Emphysema

Accumulation of air in the interstitial tissue of the lungs

Causes:
• Old age
• Slaughter method (especially Jewish slaughter)
• Chronic condition in horses
Interstitial emphysema
in the cow's lungs

Judgement
Condemn affected lung and pass the carcass
 Tumors/Neoplasms

Excessive growth of tissues

• Incidence increases with age of an animal

• Uncommon in meat inspection due to young age at slaughter
Squamous cell carcinoma
affecting cow's eye and
parotid lymph node

Judgement
• Condemn affected part if single (benign and malignant)
• Condemn carcass if multiple affecting different organs
 Calcification

Deposition of lime salts in the tissues

• Result of body’s defensive mechanism to enclose and

immobilize some foreign agents

• Common in tuberculous lesions or in parasitic infections

Calcification of the aorta
and brachiocephalic trunk
in a young heifer

Judgement
• Condemn affected part if localised
• Condemn carcass if extensive
Parasitic lesions undergoing mineralization in a sheep liver
 Degeneration

Breaking down of the complex structure of a tissue or organ into simpler

substances
• Most important in meat inspection is fat infiltration
May be associated with fever and severe bacterial intoxication

• Cloudy swelling is the simplest form and affects liver, kidney, heart and
muscular tissue

• Affected organs are slightly enlarged, paler and softer than normal

• When sectioned, the swollen tissue bulges on the cut surface

Degeneration, Cloudy
swelling and associated fatty
change of the pig liver

Judgement
• Physiological - pass if less severe, condemn part if severe
• Pathological – condemn part if local, condemn carcass if extensive
 Telangiectasis
(plum pudding liver)

• Extremely common in old cows

• Aetiology not well known:
- A feeding factor and Sphaerophorus necrophorus ?
- Neurogenic origin?
 Bovine liver affected
with telangiectasis

Postmortem findings
Liver has numerous bluish black areas which form spongy depressions

Judgement
• Condemn liver if severe, pass if slight
 Spear grass penetration

Numerous spear like seeds in the sheep carcass

 Spear grass
penetration of sheep

Judgement
Condemn carcass if generalised
 Dark, firm and dry meat (DFD) &
Pale, soft and exudative meat (PSE)

DFD
The colour of the musculature of the freshly killed
animal (whole or part) is darker and drier than normal

PSE
The muscle is watery and paler than normal

Both are associated with pre-slaughter mishandling and

possible physiological differences of the animals
Judgement
Pass for consumption. However, they have poor keeping
Transit erythema

Cause – irritation by disinfectants and urine on floor

Characteristics:
• Red patches on the skin in contact with the floor
• May extend to subcutaneous fat
• Severe forms may cause congestion of lymph nodes

Judgement:
Condemn if lymph nodes are involved, otherwise trim
SPECIFIC DISEASES OF CATTLE
 Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD)

Antemortem findings:
• Fever up to 41.7°C
• Dullness
• Lack of appetite
• Extensive salivation
• Shaking of feet and lameness

Postmortem findings:
• Necrosis of heart muscles in young animals
• Ulcerations on tongue, palate, gums, rumen pillars, feet

Judgement
Total condemnation
Excessive salivation in a
cow affected with FMD
FMD - extensively eroded
tongue epithelium of bovine
 Rift Valley Fever (RVF)
Antemortem findings:
• Edematous unpigmented skin with cracking and sloughing
• Salivation and inflammation in the mouth
• Diarrhoea
• Lameness

Postmortem findings:
• Cyanotic visible mucosae
• Edematous and haemorrhagic gall bladder
• Haemorrhage of GIT, serosae, internal organs & L/nodes
• Udder is purple

Judgement:
• Carcasses from cattle with clinical signs are condemned
• Approve reactors, but condemn liver, blood and affected parts
RVF - encrustation
around the muzzle
Rabies
Antemortem findings :
Furious form
• Restlessness
• Aggressive, may attack others
• Sexual excitement
• Bellowing
• Paralysis and death

Paralytic form
• Dropping and swaying of the hind quarters
• Drooling and salivation
• The tail is held to one side
• Paralysis - the animal falls to the ground
• Death after 48 hours
Postmortem findings
Possible inflammation of GIT mucosa

Judgement
• In endemic areas carcasses may be approved if the
animal was bitten eight days before slaughter and
within 2 days of slaughter

• The bite area and surrounding tissue must be

condemned, and prevention taken to prevent
occupational hazards.
 Lumpy Skin Disease (LSD)
Antemortem findings:
• Fluctuating fever
• Diarrhoea, Nasal discharge, salivation
• Various sized cutaneous nodules - lesions may form scabs
• Swelling of superficial lymph nodes
• Swelling of limbs (may have inflamed joints and tendons)
• Lameness

Postmortem findings:
• Ulcerations in the mucosa of the respiratory and GIT
• Haemorrhagic to whitish lesions in the lungs
• Oedema and nodules in the lungs
• Endocardial lesion
• Skin sloughing
Judgement:
• Condemn if generalise and has fever
• Pass conditional to heat treatment if only mild cutaneous
nodules and no fever, but condemn affected parts

LSD - various sized cutaneous nodules in a severe case

LSD - cut surface of nodules in the lung parenchyma
and interlobular oedema
Bovine Viral Diarrhoea (BVD)
Antemortem findings :
• Fever
• Congestion and erosions in the oral mucous membranes
• Depression and anorexia
• Cough, polypnea and salivation
• Dehydration and debilitation
• Foul-smelling diarrhoea
• Cessation of rumination
• Abortion in pregnant cows
• Laminitis
Postmortem findings :
• Shallow erosions on the entrance of the nostrils, mouth,
pharynx, larynx, oesophagus, rumen, omasum,
abomasum, and caecum

• Erythema of the mucosa with submucosal haemorrhage

in the abomasum, small intestine, caecum and colon.

Judgement:
• Condemn if generalised and has fever and/or emaciation
• Approve if chronic and has no systemic involvement
BVD - Congestion and erosions in the ruminal mucosa
BVD - Inflammation of the abomasum (note reddening)
Bovine spongiform encephalopathy
(BSE, “Mad cow disease”)

Antemortem findings :
• Weight loss, while maintaining good appetite
• Behaviour changes (nervousness and aggressiveness)
• Apprehension, teeth grinding
• Tremors and abnormal ear position
• Abnormal posture and disorientation
• Incoordination and stiff gait
• Paresis, recumbency and death

Postmortem findings - only on postmortem histological

exam of brain tissue
Judgement – total condemnation
BSE - degenerative lesion in the cerebral cortex
 Heartwater (Hydropericardium)
Antemortem findings :
• Fever
• Diarrhoea or rapid breathing
• Nervous signs (twitching of eyelids, tongue protrusion, walking
in circles, opisthotonos, convulsions, ....)

Postmortem findings:
• Hydropericardium
• Hydrothorax
• Pulmonary edema and ascites
• Haemorrhagic gastroenteritis
• Enlarged liver, spleen and lymph nodes
• Haemorrhage in the abomasum and intestine
• Edema and haemorrhage of the brain

Judgement – condemn if acute; approve if chronic + good health

Heartwater - Cowdria ruminantium in bovine brain smear
 Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP)
Antemortem findings :
• Fever, depression, lack of appetite and loss of weight
• Coughing on exercise
• Shallow rapid respiration, grunting and gurgling
• Extended neck, lowered head and open mouth
• Arched back and outward rotated elbow

Postmortem findings :
• Fibrinous inflammation of the pleura (pleuritis)
• Straw coloured fluid in the thorax
• Lobar pneumonia with red hepatization
• Enlarged mediastinal lymph nodes
• Walled-off sequestra formation in chronic cases
• Haemorrhage in the heart
CBPP - straw coloured fluid in the thorax
CBPP - lobar pneumonia with red hepatization and
marbled appearance of lung lobules
 Black quarter (Black leg)
Antemortem findings
• High fever (41°C)
• Lameness, loss of appetite, discoloured, dry/cracked skin
• Stiff gait and reluctance to move
• Crepitating swellings often on the hips and shoulder

Postmortem findings
• Laying on one side with affected hind leg stuck out
• Bloating of carcass
• Blood stained frothy exudates from the nostrils and anus
• Dark red to black muscle of the loin, back or leg
• Sponge-like bubbly muscles with a peculiar rancid odour
• Yellowish, gelatinous subcut tissue and associated gas bubbles
• Blood stained fluid in body cavities

Judgement – Total condemnation at antemortem

Black leg - dark-red skeletal muscle of a heifer showing
haemorrhage, necrosis, edema and emphysema
 Botulism

Antemortem findings :
• Restlessness
• Knuckling and incoordination
• Paralysed tongue and drooling of saliva
• Sternal recumbency
• Progressive muscular paralysis from hindquarters to
frontquarters, head and neck

Postmortem findings
• Foreign material in fore-stomachs or stomachs may be
suggestive of botulism

Judgement
Total condemnation because of human hazards
Botulism - sternal recumbency. Muscular paralysis of hind
and front quarters
 Tuberculosis (TB)
Antemortem findings:
• Low grade fever
• Intermittent cough associated pneumonia
• Difficult breathing, weakness and loss of appetite
• Emaciation
• Swelling superficial body lymph nodes

Postmortem findings
• Tuberculous granuloma in the lymph nodes of the head, lungs,
intestine and carcass
• Inactive lesions may be calcified and encapsulated
• Nodules on the pleura and peritoneum
• Lesions in the lungs, liver, spleen, kidney
• Bronchopneumonia
• Firmer and enlarged udder, particularly rear quarters

Judgement – Follow Tanzania guidelines

TB - lesions in the lungs
 Johne's disease (Bovine paratuberculosis)
Antemortem findings :
• Emaciation, rough hair coat and dry skin
• Non responsive diarrhoea with watery fluid faeces
• Submandibular edema (“bottle jaw”)
• Mastitis
• Debility and death

Postmortem findings :
• Thickened and corrugated intestinal mucosa
• Enlarged caecal lymph nodes

Judgement
• Condemn if associated with edema and emaciation
• Approve if no generalized systemic signs
• Slightly moist carcass be chilled and approved if setting occurs
Johne's disease - thickened & corrugated intestinal mucosa
 Brucellosis
(contagious abortion, Bang's disease)

Antemortem and postmortem findings :

• Abortion in non vaccinated pregnant cows
• Occasional inflammation of testes and epididymis
• Swelling of scrotum
• Edematous placenta and fetus
• Hygromas on knees, stifles, hock, & around nuchal ligament

Judgement:
• Remove affected parts and approve the carcass
• Condemn if accompanied with abortion
• Reactors should be carefully handled (gloves and goggles)
• Spray hygromas with 1 % lactic acid at meat inspection
Brucellosis - Hygromas
on the knee joints
 Anthrax
Antemortem findings:
Peracute and acute forms in cattle without clinical signs

Postmortem findings:
• Dark-tarry blood discharge from body orifices
• Absence of rigor mortis
• H/rrhage of mucous & serous membranes, L/ nodes & subcut
• Enlarged spleen
• Severe haemorrhagic enteritis
• Degeneration of the liver and kidneys
• Bloating and rapid decomposition of carcass

Judgement
Total condemnation
• Burn OR
• burry >6 ft deep + cover with thick layer of lime
Anthrax - Toluidine blue stain. Bacillus anthracis in a bovine
spleen. Anthrax bacilli in tissue seen in short chains
surrounded by a common capsule
 Actinobacillosis (“wooden tongue”)
Antemortem findings:
• Loss of appetite
• Salivation and chewing
• Swollen tongue
• Mouth erosions, enlarged parotid & retropharyngeal L/nodes

Postmortem findings:
• Enlarged tongue showing tough fibrous consistency
• A cluster of small yellowish nodules & erosions of tongue mucosa
• Granulomatous lesions in the lymph nodes
• Marked thickening of lower part of oesophagus & stom. wall
• Raised plaques & erosions in the mucosa of rumen & reticul.

Judgement
• Total condemnation if has active progressive inflammation
• Condemn affected organs if localised
Actinobacillosis - the tongue is enlarged, firm and
contains numerous granulomatous lesions
Actinobacillosis - multifocal, well demarcated yellow lesions
in the retropharyngeal lymph nodes of a bovine animal
 Actinomycosis
(“Lumpy Jaw”)
Antemortem findings:
• Painful swelling of the maxilla and mandible (lumpy jaw) .
• Suppurative tracts breaking towards oral cavity or skin
• Ulceration of cheeks and gums
• Difficult breathing and salivation
• Loss of weight
• Diarrhoea and bloat

Postmortem findings:
• Lesions in the mandible or maxilla
• Granulom lesions in lower oesoph or anterior of reticulum
• Local peritonitis
• Mild abomasitis and enteritis

Judgement: see Actinobacillosis

Actinomycosis - diffuse
granulomas in maxilla &
formation of green yellow pus
 Pyelonephritis
(Contagious Bovine Pyelonephritis)

Antemortem findings :
• Persistent high temperature
• Loss of appetite and progressive weight loss
• Painful and increased frequency of urination
• Ammoniac odour from animal
• Acute abdominal pain (colic)
• Ceased rumen contraction

Postmortem findings :
• Pyelonephritis showing enlarged, pale and greyish kidney
• Enlarged renal lymph nodes
• Purulent lesion in the medulla, pelvis and ureters
• Inflammation of kidney and kidney stones
• Uraemia
Judgement:
• Condemn if :
– associated with uraemia
– accompanied with systemic changes in the organs and L/nodes,
and/or degeneration of body tissues

• Pass if:
– sub-acute/chronic without systemic changes (condemn affected parts)
– only associated with kidney stones

• Borderline cases with uraemic odours should be chilled for 24

hrs, subjected to a boiling test, & approved if smell disappears
Pyelonephritis - cut section of a bovine kidney showing
multifocal abscessation in the cortex and medulla
Pyelonephritis - associated with kidney stones
 Metritis
Antemortem findings :
• High fever and depression
• Placental retention
• Reddish fetid discharge from the vulva

Postmortem findings :
• Enlarged flaccid uterus showing “paint-brush”
haemorrhages on the serosal surface
• Light-brown foul smelling exudate from the uterus
• Enlarged uterus with greenish-yellow purulent exudate
• Inflamed peritoneum at the entrance of the pelvic cavity
• Enlarged iliac, lumbar and sacral lymph nodes
• Congested musculature of the carcass
• Necrosis of abdominal fat

Judgement : Condemn if acute, pass if chronic & no drug resid.

Pyometra - enlarged uterus containing greenish -yellow exudate
 Mastitis
Antemortem findings :
• Swollen warm, painful udder or hard enlargement
• Abnormal gait caused by rubbing of the hind leg
• Tends to lie down
• Purulent/bloody exudate from teats or watery pale if chronic

Postmortem findings :
• Pale yellow granular appearance of the udder parenchyma
• Light brown edematous udder parenchyma
• Enlarged supramammary, iliac and lumbar lymph nodes

Judgement:
• Condemn if acute or associated with systemic changes
• Pass if localised (condemn affected parts)
Chronic mastitis - enlarged, firm udder. Note normal milk and
pale yellow granular appearance of the udder parenchyma
Mastitis - brown red edematous udder parenchyma
Culture resulted in a heavy growth of Staphylococcus aureus
 Endocarditis
Antemortem findings :
• Moderate fever
• Breathing with accompanied grunt
• Pallor of mucosae
• Loss of condition and muscle weakness
• Jaundice and death

Postmortem findings :
• Large cauliflower-like lesions in the endocardium
• Small wart-like and verrucose lesions in the endocardium
• Embolic lesions in other organs including lungs, spleen, …

Judgement:
• Condemn if debilitated and if associated with lesions in lungs, …
• Approve if shows scar tissue
• Heat treat and approve if no signs of systemic changes
Endocarditis - vegetative valvular endocarditis
Traumatic reticuloperitonitis (TRP)
(hardware disease, traumatic gastritis, traumatic reticulitis)
Antemortem findings :
• Stretched head and neck
• Reluctance to walk, arched back and tucked up abdomen
• Scant, hard faeces, rarely covered with mucus
• Mild rumen bloat
• Audible “grunt” in early stages
• Elevated cardinal parameters if septicaemic

Postmortem findings :
• Adhesions of rumen, reticulum and peritoneum + abscesses
• Acute or chronic peritonitis
• Splenic and lung abscessation, pleuritis
• Traumatic pericarditis
• Edema of the chest

Judgement – Condemn if associate with systemic changes

TRP - cross section of the heart reveals thick fibrinous
deposits that encircled heart