Support Material 3

Research Method & Analysis Data: ADS501/511
Topic: Research Method: Thinking about doing

Lecture objectives:
This lecture is intended to
To demonstrate internal validity, 3 conditions provide students with an
for proving causality (cause-effect). understanding of research
methods
 Correlation between the cause (IV) and Effect (DV)

Must show that 2 variable co-vary (statistics)
Points to ponder:
 Time/temporal order, sequence of change • Can we suggest causality by
The change in IV must come before change in DV merely looking at
(research design) correlation?
• How can you show/prove
 Elimination of alternative causes that change in A precedes a
change in B?
Must eliminate other known and unknown causes of the
• How will you show that the
change in DV (research design - randomization or measurement,
use of Tongkat Ali reduces
theory)\\
fatigue? Can you prove it at
(J.S. Mills, 1972)
the chemical or perceptual
level?
 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Topic: Research Method: Research designs

Lecture objectives:
 It is a plan or blueprint of the entire research provide students with an
 It is the defense against questions about the understanding of research
methods
study
 Seeks to achieve internal & external validity
 Research allows for replication of study Points to ponder:
 There are different research designs
 Cross-sectional designs • Must I use a known research
 Longitudinal designs design? Can I innovate?
• Can you not use any research
 Experiment designs design?
 Quasi experiment designs
 Case study design
 Factorial designs

Topic: Research Method: Cross-sectional design

Lecture objectives:
 Cross-sectional design This lecture is intended to
 survey/census of some variables of interest provide students with an
understanding of research
at a particular point in time methods
 measures correlations between variables
 cannot determine causality but show the 1st
of causality – covariation Points to ponder:
 appropriate if the research objectives are
• Sexual harassment and
correlational in nature.
women employment go
 Through sophisticated statistical analyses, together. What design will
we can shoe direct and indirect connections test the validity of this
and provide evidence suggesting causality. statement?
• If there is no covariation
between two variables, no
causation is possible. True?

.
Correlational/cross-sectional study
Sample selected
Time,
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
t 1
(2004)
PPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPP
Population of interest

Topic: Research Methods: Experimental design

 Experimental designs Lecture objectives:
 When to use it This lecture is intended to
 to show cause and effect provide students with an
 too many extraneous factors, need control understanding of research
designs
 when manipulation is ethically and practically
possible Points to ponder:
 Elements of an experiment
• What are threats to an
 experimental group
experiment?
 control group • Can we tell the subjects the
 random assignment of subjects purpose of the experiment?
 treatment • What is a placebo effect?
• How do I know that the
 measurement
treatment/intervention is
 suitable for determining causal relationships strong enough to produce the
 strong internal validity outcome? (manipulation
 Solomon’s 4 groups design check)
 weakness - contrived environment
 strength – controlled environment, cause -effect

Simple Experiment
Treatment/intervention Effect measured is the

manipulation of IV DV
Exp. Gp. R O1 X O2 = O2 > O1 (Yes effect)

-------------------------------------------------------------------------
Ctrl. Gp. R O1 O2 = O2= O1 (No effect)
Causal evidence if A>B

Topic: Research Methods: Experimental design

Lecture objectives:
 Quasi-Experimental designs provide students with an
 When to use it understanding of research
 subjects/groups are taken as is. designs
 Elements of the Q-experiment
Points to ponder:
 experimental group
 control group • Think of a Q-exp. to study
 subjects accepted as given (not random) effect of learning ethics on
attitudes towards ethics.
 treatment • Can we tell the subjects the
 measurement purpose of the experiment?
 relatively strong internal validity • What is a placebo effect?
 weaknesses – not randomised • How do I know that the
 strength – closest to experiment, can be
strong enough to produce the
attained outcome? (manipulation
check)

Quasi-Experiment
Treatment/intervention Effect measured is the

manipulation of IV DV
O1 X O2 = O2-O1 > F1(Yes effect)

-----------------------------------------------------------------
O1 O2 = O2-O1 > F2(No effect)
Causal evidence if F1 > F2

Topic: Research Methods: Longitudinal design

Lecture objectives:
 Longitudinal design provide students with an
 progression of time understanding of research
 examines the “how” issue designs
 suitable for seeking effects over time
Points to ponder:
 establishes correlation, not causal connection
 weakness – many threat over time, subject • What are threats to an
mortality, attrition etc. experiment?
• Can we tell the subjects the
 strength – can see the effect over time,
purpose of the experiment?
especially when effects have long gestation • What is a placebo effect?
period ex. public policy • How do I know that the
strong enough to produce the
outcome? (manipulation
check)

.
Longitudinal study
Time t 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Observation A O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 O6 O7 O8 O9 O10 O11 O12
Observation B O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 O6 O7 O8 O9 O10 O11 O12

Topic: Research Methods: Case Study

 Study few units of interests Lecture objectives:
 Look deeply into the phenomenon of interest This lecture is intended to
 Collect a huge quantity of data via multiple provide students with an
understanding of case study
methods i.e. interviews, observations, designs
secondary
data, surveys etc. Points to ponder:
 Mainly to know dynamics of a phenomenon i.e.
• How many units is too many
what makes an effective manager. for a case study?
 Suitable when a phenomenon is not well • Can you study one unit?
understood but also used a a complete method • How do you analyse text
 Data analysis may be quantitative or qualitative data ?
• Can you develop
 Units are purposively selected for analysis i.e. understanding on the base of
successful firm, failed venture, great leader etc. I case study?
 The interview texts must be carefully studied for
patterns or themes that help establish
relationships
between a multitude of variables in the setting.

Topic: Research Methods: Case Study
Simple case
study design Lecture objectives:
Single unit case study of This lecture is intended to
transformation of provide students with an
TNB government entity to a understanding of case study
private corporation designs
Multiple unit case study of Points to ponder:

3 government agencies that
Large • How many units is too many
have been privatised for a case study?
TNB • Can you study one unit?
• How do you analyse text
data ?
Telecom • Can you develop
complex case
Pos understanding on the base of
study design I case study?
Malaysia
Small
Low
High
competition

Topic: Research Methods: Design

A 2 x 3 Factorial Design Lecture objectives:
provide students with an
Selecting different levels of the IVs and examining for the understanding of research
effect on the DV. In the example below the IVS are Campus (3 design
campuses and gender (2 types)
Points to ponder:
• Many categories, more

sample needed.
Campus • Many categorical factors,
higher sample size.
Melaka S. Alam Sarawak
Male >30 >30 >30

Gender
Female >30 >30 >30
N >180

Topic: Research Methods: Design

A 2 x 3 Factorial Design Lecture objectives:
Selecting different levels of the IVs and examining for the understanding of research
effect on the DV. In the example below the IVS are maturity (3 design
levels) and scope of certification (2 levels)
Points to ponder:

sample needed.
Maturity • Many categorical factors,
higher sample size.
6 months 12 months 24 months
Partial 30 30 30
Scope
Total 30 30 30
N >180

UNIT OF ANALYSIS
Units Examples Illustrative examples
People Students The smoking habit among university students

Teachers Computer literacy among school teachers
Managers Managerial style of Malaysian managers
Women Career prospects of women managers
Executives
Organisation Department The relationship between functional departments

Firm The relationship between information sharing and market
orientation in an organisation
Things Pets The health status of the pets kept by Malaysians

Cars The accessorisation of automobiles by
owners/drivers
Places The atmospherics of the service area. Condition of
public toilets in Klang valley
Behaviour / Accidents/donation A study of accident reporting at Police stations.

Act/deed encounter/service Analysing causes of accidents from Accident Exchange
Reports

Topic: Research Methods: Fig 1

Lecture objectives:
Cost of This lecture is intended to
High sampling
understanding of sampling
Points to ponder:
Sampling Error
Error level drops sharply initially

as the n increases but further increase in • What level of error is
n acceptable?
reduces error by smaller rate (see • How important is the
Sekaran (2003), p. 294 decision?
Random
Low sampling
Small Large Convenience

Sample size sampling

Topic: Research Methods: Sample

Lecture objectives:
Sample size This lecture is intended to
understanding of no. of units
◙ Refers to no. of units to be studied as part of the
to be included in the study.
study.
◙ Many factors determine the sample size Points to ponder:
◙ Sample size related to risk of being wrong (see Fig. 1)
◙ Sample size related to statistical techniques to • Too small and too large
be used sample size are problems.
◙ regression – 5-25 cases per IV • The planned sample size
◙ Factor Analysis - >100 cases – 15 cases per variable must be larger because of
◙ Anova – every category = 30 cases per category non-response factor.
◙ Chi-Square – every cell > 5 but around 30 better
◙ Sample size affects generalisability
◙ More important if not randomly selected – the larger
the sample, the more normally distributed it becomes
– the law of central tendency

Topic: Research Methods: Sampling

Lecture objectives:
 Sampling: process of selecting units from a This lecture is intended to
population for the study provide students with an
 Population of interest understanding of sampling
 Why sample?
 too many Points to ponder:
 too costly
 sampling error can be determined and • What is a population of
interest?
reduced • Accessible population?
 good sampling frame available

Topic: Research Methods: Sample

Lecture objectives:
A 2 x 3 Factorial Design provide students with an
Campus
Points to ponder:
Melaka S. Alam Sarawak
Male >30 >30 >30 sample needed.
• Many categorical factors,
Gender
higher sample size.

Female >30 >30 >30
N >180

Topic: Research Methods: Sampling Technique

Lecture objectives:
◙ Concepts in Sampling This lecture is intended to
◙ Population – all units in the universe understanding of sampling
◙ Sampling frame – a listing of the units
◙ Sampling technique – the selection of units in Points to ponder:
the frame.
• Population of cars, cattle,
cats etc in Malaysia.
• Sometimes we do not have a
sampling frame. Cinema
Sample goers, people who have
complained about public
services.
Populatio
n


Lecture objectives:
Sampling frame This lecture is intended to
◙ A listing of units of the population of interest provide students with an
◙ There may be several sampling frames. e.g.
◙ Telephone listing
◙ Tenaga listing Points to ponder:
◙ Indahwaster listing
◙ Municipality property listing cats etc in Malaysia.
◙ Electoral listing etc. • Sometimes we do not have a
goers, people who have
services.


Lecture objectives:
Sampling technique This lecture is intended to
◙ Random sampling provide students with an
◙ Systematic sampling understanding of sampling
◙ Quota sampling
◙ Strata sampling Points to ponder:
◙ Cluster sampling
◙ Convenience sampling • Population of cars, cattle,
◙ Purposive sampling cats etc in Malaysia.
◙ Snowball sampling sampling frame. Cinema
services.


Lecture objectives:
Random sampling This lecture is intended to
◙ Identify the population of interest provide students with an
◙ Develop a sampling frame understanding of sampling
◙ Determine sample size needed
◙ Generate a table of random numbers Points to ponder:
◙ Using the random number select the sample
required from the sampling frame • Population of cars, cattle,
services.

RANDOM SAMPLING
AABBCCDDD
Every unit in the
CCCDDDEEE population has an ABCDEF
E equal chance of GHIJKL
being selected
FFFFGGGGH
H
HIIIJJJKKKL
L

Topic: Research Methods: Random Sampling Technique
There are free random number generator software available on Internet. One can be
obtained from . (http://www.randomiser.org). This site is set up to help students,
lecturers and researchers. It is well design, structured and easy to follow and allows a lot
of options in generating the numbers.
1 Set of 50 Unique Numbers Per Set.

Range: From 1 to 643. -- Sorted from Least to Greatest.
Set #1:
8, 24, 25, 29, 36, 56, 67, 114, 115, 151, 156, 164, 182, 202, 213, 214, 221, 227, 241, 245, 259, 266,
272, 273, 274, 277, 281, 284, 290, 295, 298, 322, 367, 375, 386, 391, 410, 412, 461, 466, 473, 487,
490, 505, 539, 541, 552, 553, 567, 569
You now have a list of all the students you will select to participate in your study. In other words, you
will pick Student #8, Student #24, Student #25, and so on. Once you have your numbers, you can do
several things with them. You can print out your numbers by going to the 'file' pull-down menu in the
upper left corner of this window and selecting 'print'. Alternatively, you can save your results to a file
to work with later by going to the 'file' pull-down menu and selecting 'save as'. Or you can highlight
the numbers, copy them to the clipboard (go to 'edit' then 'copy'), and paste them ('edit' then 'paste')
into your favorite database, spreadsheet, or word processor program. ( Source: the above example is
taken from www.randomizer.org.)


Lecture objectives:
 Systematic sampling provide students with an
 Identify the population of interest understanding of sampling
 Develop a sampling frame
 Determine sample size needed Points to ponder:
 Determine the selection rule
 Select the sample required using the rule • Population of cars, cattle,
i.e. every 5th name cats etc in Malaysia.
services.

Population
SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
ABCDEFGHIJKL
MNOPQRSTUVW
XYZ ABCDEFGHIJ
MNOPQRSTUVW Sample
XYZ ABCDEFGHIJ
MNOPQRSTUVW AEJOTY
XYZ ABCDEFGHIJ
Every 5th unit
MNOPQRSTUVW selected D
XYZ ABCDEFGHIJ IPUZEJQ
MNOPQRSTUVW VAFMR
XYZ
W


Lecture objectives:
Quota/Strata/Cluster Sampling provide students with an
 Identify the population of interest understanding of sampling
 Identify important characteristics for the study
subjects Points to ponder:
 Divide the total population by the characteristic
 Determine the composition in the population • Population of cars, cattle,
 Divide the total population using these cats etc in Malaysia.
characteristics sampling frame. Cinema
 Select randomly or systematically a goers, people who have
 proportionate number of the total sample from complained about public
each division services.


Lecture objectives:
Convenience sampling provide students with an
 Clear idea of the population of interests understanding of sampling
 Sample size required determined
 Solicit subjects by approaching them at Points to ponder:
convenient
locations • Population of cars, cattle,
 Location, time etc recorded cats etc in Malaysia.
services.


Purposive sampling Lecture objectives:
 Determine characteristics that will allow good test understanding of sampling
of theory or hypotheses
 Identify the population of interest
 Develop a profile information • Population of cars, cattle,
 Select the subjects required cats etc in Malaysia.
services.


Lecture objectives:
 Snowball sampling understanding of sampling
 Identify the population of interest
 Develop a profile information
 Identify a subject and ask for other • Population of cars, cattle,
similar subjects cats etc in Malaysia.
services.

Topic: Research Methods: Measurement

Lecture objectives:
 Measurement/Operationalisation/Observation provide students with an
 How is the concept and the indicator related? understanding of
 How would you determine how much, what measurement
level of the variable is present? Points to ponder:
 What yardstick will you use to measure?
 What are the properties of the measurement • Are we measuring what we
scheme? want to measure?
• Is the measure reliable?
 New or existing measure
 Single or multiple indicators
 Objective or subjective measures


Lecture objectives:
Conceptual Conceptual This lecture is intended to
Definition Definition provide students with an
Abstract understanding of
Motivation is the Job satisfaction is the measurement
intensity of the like or dislike of a job
drive to exert by the incumbent Points to ponder:
effort
• Am I measuring the right
Operational Operational thing?
Definition Definition • Is this response reliable?
• How can I be sure?
Motivation is Job satisfaction is • Are these statements clear?
manifested in feelings of the • Is objective measures better
good attendance, employee about the than subjective ones?
willingness to do Concrete nature of job, the job
more and environment, the
obedience. colleagues, the
supervisor and his pay


Lecture objectives:
 Type of Measurement This lecture is intended to
 Quantitative or qualitative understanding of
 Number of response categories measurement
 Single or multiple measures
 Mathematical properties Points to ponder:
 ratio scales • Population of cars, cattle,
 interval scales cats etc in Malaysia.
 ordinal scales • Sometimes we do not have a
 nominal scales
 Attributes of good measures complained about public
 valid - face, content, construct, predictive, services.
ecological etc
 reliable - stable over time
 simple - easy to administer
 multiple indicators


Level Qualities Example What you can say What you can’t say
Nominal Assignment of Gender (male Each observation An observation is more

(categories) label or female) belongs in own or less than onother
Preference (like or category
dislike)
Ordinal Assignment of values Rank in college One observation is The amount that one
(category & order) along some underlying Order of finishing ranked above or below variable is more or less
dimension a race another than another
Interval ( category Equal distances Number of words One score differs The amount of diff.
Order and spacing of between the points spelled correctly fro another on some is an exact represen-
Equal intervals) Intelligence tests scores measure that has tation of diff. on the
Temperature equally appearing variable being studied
intervals
Ratio (category Meaningful and Age One value is twice Not much!
Order, spacing of non-arbitrary zero Weight as much as another or
equal intervals and Time no quantity of that
A zero point) variable can exist
Source: Salkind,2000:101


Lecture objectives:
Quantitative: Performance (Lagging, objective, provide students with an
understanding of
low availability indicators
measurement
Return on Investment
Return on equity Points to ponder:
Earnings per share
• Only listed firms have better
market & financial data.
Qualitative: Performance (Current, perceptual, • Fear of releasing confidential
subjective standards adjusted, available) data.
Leadership development – Very Good • Researcher interprets data.
Management system – Flexible, fluid
Brand identity – well regarded
Goodwill – excellent relationship with
CSR – Good corporate citizen
Innovativeness – leading in NPD


General,
broad & crude Lecture objectives:
information This lecture is intended to
Are you happy? Yes No (2 Response Categories) provide students with an
understanding of
measurement
Are you happy? Very happy, Happy, unhappy Very Unhappy (4 RC)
Better Points to ponder:
ISO 9000 has limited use in education (3RC) 1 2 3
information
ISO 9000 has limited use in education (5RC) 1 2 3 4 5 • Scales are not measurement.
quality
ISO 9000 has limited use in education (6RC) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 They are an aspect of the
measurement.
• Likert instruments requires
statements, not questions.
More choices, • Agree/disagree is not always
more the best scales.
discriminability, (important/unimportant,
better measure apply/does not apply,
practiced/not practiced,
ethical/not ethical etc.


Lecture objectives:
Trade unionism: This lecture is intended to
Definition measurement
The existence of TU in an enterprise
Indicator 1 -Trade union establishment
Points to ponder:
Definition: The support for trade unions • What is the essence of my
Indicator 1 - Trade union establishment definition?
Indicator 2 - % of workers as members of TU • Are there dimensions
inherent in the definition?
Definition: The support collective organisation
Indicator 1 - Trade union establishment
Indicator 2 - % of workers as members of TU
Indicator 3 - % of workers in support


Lecture objectives:
Likert Scale This lecture is intended to
Perceived Value of ISO 9000 provide students with an
understanding of
measurement
ISO 9000 has limited use in education (RC) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Getting ISO 9000 has more to do with image Points to ponder:
building than quality improvement. (RC) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
ISO 9000 is suitable for manufacturing • Population of cars, cattle,
entities. (RC) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 cats etc in Malaysia.
ISO 9000 will make this faculty competitive. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 • Sometimes we do not have a
ISO 9000 certification will signal the quality sampling frame. Cinema
education that is provided here. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 goers, people who have
services.
Summated Score: 6 + 5 +5 + 6 + 6 = 28
Averaged score: 6 + 5 +5 + 6 + 6 = 28/5= 5.6
Reverse coding: changing negatives to positives
Summated scores: overall position (scale change)
Average scores: overall position (original scale)


Lecture objectives:
Semantic Differential This lecture is intended to
Perceived Value of ISO 9000 provide students with an
understanding of
measurement
Points to ponder:
Productive 5 4 3 2 1 Wasteful
Accountable 5 4 3 2 1 Not accountable • Population of cars, cattle,
Transparent 5 4 3 2 1 No transparency cats etc in Malaysia.
Efficient 5 4 3 2 1 Not efficient
Effective 5 4 3 2 1 Not effective goers, people who have
Simplify 5 4 3 2 1 Complicate complained about public
services.
5 + 4 + 4 + 3 + 2 + 2 = 20
Lowest = 6- Poor/Low
Highest = 30 Good/High


Lecture objectives:
The Non-Adherence Score provide students with an
(NAS) understanding of
measurement
Extent of N.A.S No % Cumul
[Non]Adherence . ative
Points to ponder:
Very High Non- 0-3 15 20.8 20.8
Adherence • Population of cars, cattle,
High Non- 4-6 17 23.6 44.4 • Sometimes we do not have a
Adherence sampling frame. Cinema
Moderate 7-9 37 51.4 95.8
Adherence
services.
High Adherence 10-12 3 4.2 100
Very High 13-15 0 0
Adherence
Total 72 100.0 100
Hazman et al., 2002

The Non-Adherence
Score (NAS)
Extent of [Non]Adherence N.A.S. No % Cumulative
Very High Non-Adherence 0-3 15 20.8 20.8
High Non-Adherence 4-6 17 23.6 44.4
Moderate Adherence 7-9 37 51.4 95.8
High Adherence 10-12 3 4.2 100
Very High Adherence 13-15 0 0
Total 72 100.0 100
Hazman et al., 2002


Lecture objectives:
 Concept definition – operational definition understanding of
 Meaning and measurement – validity measurement
 Reliability – same reading/scores Points to ponder:
 Keep definition in view
 Test measurement against meaning • Am I measuring the right
 Thing about the measurement – practical? thing?
• Is this response reliable?
 What kind of scale – nominal, ordinal, interval, • How can I be sure?
ratio? • Are these statements clear?
 Existing scale or new scale? • Is objective measures better
 Likert, Semantic Differential, than subjective ones?
 Likert Scale – summated scales
 Index development


Research Definition of Measurement Scale Analysis Lecture objectives:
Objectives Concept This lecture is intended to
Gender and Sex of Male/female Nominal CH.S. understanding of
smoking individual
measurement
The No of cigarettes Ratio
inhalation smoked /day Points to ponder:
and
exhalation of • Am I measuring the right
smoke from thing?
a cigarette • Is this response reliable?
• How can I be sure?
Influence of Friends of Peers important. Likert Scale Corr • Are these statements clear?
Peers on the same age Listen to Peers. 5 point
smoking group Without peers life agree/disagree
• Is objective measures better
not exciting. than subjective ones?
Influence of Parents and Parents are strict CS/Anova

family on siblings only Parents do not like
smoking smokers
Brothers are close
to me

Topic: Research Methods: Measurement – Some advice

Lecture objectives:
 Use existing measures – performance & properties understanding of data
known collection
 More items/indicators/measures – better
 More response options – better but too many is Points to ponder:
problematic • Will I get back my

 Ecologically meaningful – everyday measures, questionnaires?
respondents can relate • What can I do to maximise
 Objective & subjective indicators – mix better return?
 Qualitative measures – understanding
 Quantitative measures – analysis and comparison


Lecture objectives:
1. Think when you are considering the understanding of
measurement: measurement
2. What should I think about?
Points to ponder:
3. Good question!
4. Think about: • Ready made vs. self
1. What is the definition? developed?
2. Is there a ready measure? • How do we decide on the
goodness of measure?
3. Is “good”?
4. Should I design?
5. What type of measure?
6. Would it make it easy to analyse?
7. Quality of information/data
8. Ecological suitability


Lecture objectives:
Illustration of measurement understanding of
measurement
options and consequences Points to ponder:
• Ready made vs. self

developed?
• How do we decide on the
goodness of measure?

Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio
Type of scale
Statements/ Is the room clean? Rate the cleanliness of the The room is clean. No of rubbish
room. Room is free from dirt in the room
stimulus and rubbish.
Yes/No High, Moderate, Low 5 - strongly agree, No.

4 – agree,
3 - uncertain,
2 – disagree,
1 - strongly disagree.
Information Easy to construct. Crudest Provides more Cleanliness is scaled by Allows for
quality information. If cleanliness is information in rank order. assessing people’s wider range of
a matter of degree and not We cannot tell how much perception. scale including
yes or no proposition, the each groups is different More appropriate if the fractions.
scale is inappropriate construct is a perceptual Richer data.
one i.e. satisfaction,
commitment etc.
Analysis Mode, Chi-Square, T tests Mode, Medium, Chi- All methods All methods
etc. Square, Anova etc,
Response rate Simple scale but if the scale Respondents may Depends on
does not fit with peoples’ not like agree/disagree what is asked
idea of cleanliness, response measures. Besides, you and whether
rate will suffer. have to ask 2 or more the
questions which are quantitative
similar. measure is
adequate

Topic: Research Methods: Data Collection

Lecture objectives:
It deals with the issues of how will you get the data provide students with an
from the respondents – the specific sample/units who understanding of data
you have selected to be included in the study. collection
Points to ponder:
Generally we can do this by;
• Questionnaire: a pre-structured series of questions • Will I get back my
to solicit response from respondents. Could be questionnaires?
• What can I do to maximise
personally delivered, mailed or web-based. return?
• Interviews: a purposive dialogue with the
respondent. Could be structured or unstructured.
• Observations: Collection of data from a scene or
setting by the researcher with or without instruments.
Could be participant or non-participant.


Lecture objectives:
 Observation This lecture is intended to
 process of recording pertinent stimuli from the research provide students with an
subject and setting
 Participant observation (researcher involved in
phenomenon studied Points to ponder:
 Non-participant observation (researcher is not • Population of cars, cattle,
involved cats etc in Malaysia.
 Structured and unstructured observation • Sometimes we do not have a
 Means of observation sampling frame. Cinema
 filming, videotaping, voice recording
 openly or candidly services.


Lecture objectives:
Questionnaire provide students with an
understanding of
• Good for getting more objective, simple and well questionnaire
understood issues and problems. Points to ponder:
• Can reach many within a short time – efficient.
• Easier to code and analyse because the data is pre- • Is ease equal to effective?
structured • Do I know what I am trying
get from the respondent?
• Response rate low • Does the respondent
• Restricts response understand the questions as I
• Assumes some level of literacy of language and do?
terms • Who is the best person to
tell about the organisation –
• Cannot be sure who the actual respondent is
PR manager, guard or Pa to
• Cannot be too long – low response the manager?


Lecture objectives:
Questionnaire
• Cover letter (see sample in handbook understanding of
..\..\..\BAS\Research Method\Lecture Slides\Sample cover letter.doc) questionnaire
• Sectioning
• Instructions: Points to ponder:
• Layout – functional and pleasant • Do I understand my own
• Simple language questions?
• No complicated questions/statements
• Basic respondent profile
• Good principles
• businesslike language
• purpose in mind
• pre-tested
• few pages / reasonable font size
• coloured paper


Lecture objectives:
Questions to avoid
• Double barrel questions: understanding of
• Our employees and customer like your product. questionnaire development
• If you like our products would you buy it? issues.
Points to ponder:
• Leading questions:
• Would you not agree that Dr Zombie was a good • Are my assumptions
reasonable?
• Are respondents telling me
leader? what they do?
• Social desirable questions • Is the a connection or good
• Would you consider the opinions of your connection between what
employees people believe and their
behaviour?
before making this decisions?
• Do you believe in empowering your managers?
• Loaded questions
• Democracy and human rights are basic to
civilization

Lecture objectives:
 Questionnaire - a pre-formulated written set of provide students with an
questions to which respondents records answers, understanding of sampling
usually with closely
 Alternatives Points to ponder:
 Mail questionnaires
 Personally administered questionnaires • Population of cars, cattle,
 Email questionnaires cats etc in Malaysia.
services.


Lecture objectives:
 Questionnaire design provide students with an
 Cover letter understanding of sampling
 purpose of the study
 who you are Points to ponder:
 who should answer
 assurance • Population of cars, cattle,
 what to do with it cats etc in Malaysia.
 appreciation for cooperating sampling frame. Cinema
 who to contact if needed goers, people who have
services.

Topic: Research Methods: Data Colllection

Lecture objectives:
 Questionnaire design understanding of sampling
 Questionnaire proper
 Only necessary questions
Points to ponder:
 Properly subdivided (background of respondents)
 Clear instructions • Population of cars, cattle,
 clear correct questions or statements cats etc in Malaysia.
 ease of recording responses
 adequate space if open ended goers, people who have
services.


Lecture objectives:
 Question construction provide students with an
 simple language:
I enjoy my work
My professional engagements are immensely joyful Points to ponder:
 avoid socially desirable questions
The old must be taken care of.
 no double barreled questions • Sometimes we do not have a
 no leading questions sampling frame. Cinema
 no loaded questions goers, people who have
 short questions complained about public
services.
 good sequencing


Lecture objectives:
 Questionnaire design provide students with an
 short questions understanding of sampling
 mix negative and positive statements
 label all choices provided Points to ponder:
 shorter questionnaire better
 professional look and reasonable size font • Long questionnaires have
 use lightly coloured paper if possible low response rate.
• Questionnaire if answered by
 have a means of identifying the respondent for 1 respondents risk method
administrative purposes errors.
 provide incentives to respond
 Pilot testing of questionnaire
 a few typical respondents
 check for clarity of questions/items and
instructions.


Lecture objectives:
 Interview provide students with an
 Interactive process of obtaining reactions through a understanding of sampling
dialogue with a subject.
 Unstructured
Points to ponder:
 no planned sequence of questions
 general ideas explored • Population of cars, cattle,
 Structured interviews cats etc in Malaysia.
 planned set of questions
 information needed is clearly identified goers, people who have
 visual aids may be used solicit response complained about public
 allows for comparison among interviewees services.


Lecture objectives:
Interview
• Good administrative principles understanding of
• interview guide questionnaire development
• interviewer given adequate information issues.
Points to ponder:
• recording arrangements and backup
• Go from general to specific questions • Are my assumptions
• get data or information reasonable?
• Are respondents telling me
• clarify terminologies or concepts
what they do?
• probe further, seek reasons or explanations • Is the a connection or good
• seek to understand motivation, drivers, connection between what
perspectives, paradigms, philosophy, ideology, people believe and their
behaviour?
worldview, mental models etc.

Topic: Research Methods: Data analysis

Lecture objectives:
 How would you examine the data to fulfil the understanding of sampling
research objectives?
 State the statistical techniques to be Points to ponder:
used and why i.e. correlation, regression
etc. • Population of cars, cattle,
 state the reliability and validity testing cats etc in Malaysia.
that you will undertake. sampling frame. Cinema
 state how you would check the goers, people who have
assumptions complained about public
services.

Topic: Finding
Lecture objectives:
 Present a simple but relevant profile of the provide students with an
respondents
 Use the research objectives as guide in
presenting the findings. Points to ponder:
 State what the data says about the issues in the
research objectives cats etc in Malaysia.
 Stick to mainly explaining the findings in • Sometimes we do not have a
relation to the objectives. sampling frame. Cinema
 Do not discuss the implications of the findings goers, people who have
yet services.

Topic: Finding
Table 5.1 Lecture objectives:
Profile of Respondents This lecture is intended to
No Profile No % provide students with an
1 Gender 40 40 understanding of findings
Male 60 60 chapter
Female
2 Faculty 30 30 Points to ponder:

FSPPP 70 70
FSSR
• Profile your data.
3 Parent’s Income 10 10 • Don’t repeat what is in the
High 30 30 table.
Moderate 60 60
Low • Highlight key profile
variables of interests.
4 Ownership of car 15 15
Yes 85 85
No
5 Accommodation 50 50
UiTM Hostel 50 50
Rental premises

Topic: Finding
Table 5.1 Lecture objectives:
Test of Normality of the Distribution This lecture is intended to
Variable Shapiro-Wilks/ KS Boxplot understanding of the findings
chapter.
1 Level of Smoking Not Normal (p>.05) Negative
Points to ponder:
2 Allowance Normal (P<.30) Normal
3 Peer Influence Normal (P<.60) Normal • Give summary of the
assumptions tested & its
See appendix A for full details outcome
• Normality, linearity,
Table 5.2 autocorrelation, equal
Distribution of variables variance etc.
Variable Kurtosis Skewness
1 Level of Smoking -1 -2
2 Allowance -2 -1
3 Peer Influence -2 -2
See appendix A for full details

Topic: Discussion and Conclusion

Lecture objectives:
DISCUSSION This lecture is intended to
understanding of discussion
 Briefly restate the findings
of findings
 For each major research questions and the associated
findings, examine what it means to the existing body of Questions to ponder:
evidence/knowledge
• What the main findings?
 Is the findings different or similar to others? • How does my findings
 Explore, speculate or look for possible reasons why compare with the rest?
the findings were different of similar • What take practitioners
 What do the findings mean for practitioners? learn?
• What can the discipline
 How can others research further this issue? learn?
 Admit, if there are shortcomings or qualify the study • Why are the findings
findings in terms of the sample size, sample, method different?
etc.

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Research Method & Analysis Data: ADS501/511

Topic: Research Method: Thinking about doing

 Correlation between the cause (IV) and Effect (DV)

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Topic: Research Method: Research designs

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Topic: Research Method: Cross-sectional design

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Topic: Research Methods: Experimental design

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Treatment/intervention Effect measured is the

Exp. Gp. R O1 X O2 = O2 > O1 (Yes effect)

Causal evidence if A>B

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Topic: Research Methods: Experimental design

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Treatment/intervention Effect measured is the

O1 X O2 = O2-O1 > F1(Yes effect)

Causal evidence if F1 > F2

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Topic: Research Methods: Longitudinal design

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Observation A O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 O6 O7 O8 O9 O10 O11 O12

Observation B O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 O6 O7 O8 O9 O10 O11 O12

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Topic: Research Methods: Case Study

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Multiple unit case study of Points to ponder:

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Topic: Research Methods: Design

• Many categories, more

Male >30 >30 >30

Female >30 >30 >30

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Topic: Research Methods: Design

• Many categories, more

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Units Examples Illustrative examples

People Students The smoking habit among university students

Organisation Department The relationship between functional departments

Things Pets The health status of the pets kept by Malaysians

Behaviour / Accidents/donation A study of accident reporting at Police stations.

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Topic: Research Methods: Fig 1

Error level drops sharply initially

Small Large Convenience

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Topic: Research Methods: Sample

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Topic: Research Methods: Sampling

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Topic: Research Methods: Sample

higher sample size.

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Topic: Research Methods: Sampling Technique

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Topic: Research Methods: Sampling Technique

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Topic: Research Methods: Sampling Technique

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Topic: Research Methods: Sampling Technique