THE ENDOCRINE

SYSTEM
■ The endocrine system consists of glands widely separated from each other with no direct links
■ There are commonly known as ductless glands because the hormones diffuse directly into the
bloodstream
■ The hormone is then carried in the bloodstream to target tissues and organs that may be quite
distant where they influence cellular growth and metabolism
■ Hemostasis of the internal environment is maintained partly by the autonomic nervous system
and partly by the endocrine system
■ The autonomic nervous system is concerned with rapid changes
■ Hormones of the endocrine system are mainly involved in slower and more precise
adjustments
■ The endocrine system consists of a number of distinct glands and some tissues in other
organs
■ The hypothalamus,is not an endocrine gland, but it controls the pituitary gland and has
an indirect effect on many others
■ When a hormone rice at its target cell it binds to a specific area (the receptor), where it
acts as a switch influencing chemical or metabolic reactions inside the cell
■ The receptors for peptide hormones are situated on the cell membrane and those for
lipid based hormones are inside the cell
■ A hormone is released in response to a specific stimulus
Types of endocrine glands

■ Pituitary gland
■ Thyroid gland
■ Parathyroid glands
■ Adrenal glands
■ Pancreatic islets
■ Thymus gland
■ Pineal gland
■ Ovaries in female
■ Testes in male
PITUITARY GLAND AND
HYPOTHALAMUS
■ The pituitary gland (hypophysis)and the hypothalamus act as a unit, regulating the
activity of most of the other endocrine glands
■ The pituitary gland lies in the hypophyseal fossa of the sphenoid bone below the
hypothalamus, to which it is attached by a stalk
■ It is the size of a pea
■ Weighs about 500 mg and consists of three distinct parts that originate from different
types of cells
■ THE ANTERIOR PITUITARY (ADENOHYPOPHYSIS) is an upgrowth of glandular
epithelium from the pharynx
■ THE POSTERIOR PITUITARY (NEUROHYPOPHYSIS) is a downgrowth of nervous
tissue from the brain.
■ There is a network of nerve fibres between the hypothalamus and the posterior pituitary
■ Between these lobes there is a thin strip of tissue called the intermediate lobe (it’s
function in humans is not known,)
ANTERIOR PITUITARY

■ Some of the hormone secreted by the anterior lobe (adenohypophysis) stimulate or

inhibit secretion by other endocrine glands (Target glands) while others have a direct
effect on target tissues
■ The hormones released by anterior pituitary are
■ Growth hormone (GH)
■ Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
■ Adrenocorticotropic hormone (corticotrophin,ACTH)
■ Prolactin (lactotropin)
■ Gonadotropins
■ The release of an anterior pituitary hormone follows stimulation of the gland by a
specific releasing hormone produced by the hypothalamus and carried to the gland
through the pituitary portal system of blood vessels
■ The whole system is controlled by a negative feedback mechanism
■ That is when there is a low level of hormone in the blood supplying the hypothalamus it
produces the appropriate releasing hormone that stimulates the release of a tropic
hormone by the anterior pituitary
■ This in turn stimulates the target gland to produce and release its hormone
■ As a result the blood level of that hormone rises and inhibits the secretion of releasing
factor by the hypothalamus
GROWTH HORMONE (GH)

■ This is the most abundant hormone synthesized by the anterior pituitary

■ It stimulates growth and division of most body cells but especially those in the bones and
skeletal muscle
■ During childhood and adolescence growth hormone helps in the body growth
■ After adolescence secretion of growth hormone 19 the mass of bones and skeletal muscles
■ It also regulate the aspects of metabolism in many organs.example liver , intestine and pancreas
■ Growth hormone stimulates Protein synthesis
■ Growth hormone promotes breakdown of fat
■ It increases blood glucose levels
■ The release of growth hormone is stimulated by growth hormone releasing hormone
(GHRH)
■ The release of growth hormone is suppressed by growth hormone release inhibiting
hormone (GHRIH)
■ Both GHRH and GHRIH are secreted by the hypothalamus
■ Secretion of growth hormone is greater at night during sleep
and is also stimulated by hypoglycemia exercise and anxiety
■ The daily amount separated peaks in adolescence and then declines with age
■ Inhibition of growth hormone secretion of caused by a negative feedback mechanism
when the blood level rises and also when GHRIH(somatostatin)is released by the
hypothalamus
■ GHRIH also suppresses secretion of TSH and gastrointestinal secretions like gastric
juice ,gastrin and Cholecystokinin
THYROID STIMULATING HORMONE
(TSH)
■ This hormone is synthesized by the anterior pituitary and its release is stimulated by
TRH from the hypothalamus
■ It stimulates growth and activity of the thyroid gland which secretes the hormone
thyroxine (T4) and tri-iodothyronine(T3)
■ Release is lowest in the early evening and highest during the night
■ Secretion is regulated by negative feedback mechanism
■ When the blood level of thyroid hormones is high secretion of TSH is reduced, and
when the blood level of thyroid hormones are low then the secretion of TSH is
increased
ADRENOCORTICOTROPHIC
HORMONE
■ Corticotrophin releasing hormone (CRH)from the hypothalamus promotes the synthesis
and release of ACTH by the anterior pituitary
■ This increases the concentration of cholesterol and steroids within the adrenal cortex
and the output of steroid hormones especially cortisol
■ ACTH level sar highest at about 8 a.m. and fall to their lowest at midnight
■ Highest levels sometimes occur at midday and 6:00 p.m.
■ This circadian rhythm is maintained throughout life
■ It is associated with sleep pattern and adjustment to changes takes several days e.g
changing work shifts, travelling to a different timezone (jet lag)
■ Secretion is also regulated by a negative feedback mechanism
■ Other factors that stimulates secretion include hyperglycemia, exercise and other
stressors like emotional states and fever
PROLACTIN

■ Also known as lactotropin and protein in nature

■ This hormone stimulates lactation (milk production) and has direct effect on the breast
immediately after partuiriton(child birth)
■ The blood levels of prolactin is stimulated by prolactin releasing hormone(PRH)
released from the hypothalamus and it is lowered by prolactin inhibiting hormone(PIH,
Dopamine) and also by an increased blood level of prolactin
■ After birth suckling of the baby stimulates prolactin secretion and lactation
■ The resultant high blood level is a factor in reducing the incidence of conception during
lactation
■ Prolactin together with estrogens corticosteroids insulin and thyroxine is involved in
initiating and maintaining lactation
■ Prolactin secretion is related to sleep
■ That is the level of prolactin increases during any period of sleep night or day
■ Emotional stress increases production of prolactin
GONADOTROPHINS

■ After puberty two gonadotropthins or sex hormones are secreted by the anterior
pituitary in response to luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH)also known as
gonadotropin-releasing hormhormone(GnRH)
■ In both males and females these are
1. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
2. Luteinizing hormone (LH)
■ In females
■ Luteinizing hormone and follicle stimulating hormone are involved in secretion of
the hormones oestrogen and progesterone during the menstrual cycle
■ As the levels of oestrogen and progesterone rises secretion of luteinizing hormone
and focal stimulating hormone is suppressed
■ Follicle stimulating hormone stimulates the production of ova
■ In males
■ Luteinizing hormone is also called interstitial cell stimulating hormone (ICSH)
stimulates interstitial cells of of the testes to secrete the hormone testosterone
■ Follicle stimulating hormone stimulates the production of spermatozoa in male
POSTERIOR PITUITARY

■ It is the downgrowth of nervous tissue from the hypothalamus

■ Oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone (ADH,or Vasopressin) are the hormones synthesized
in the hypothalamus and then stored in the axon terminals with in the posterior pituitary
gland
■ These hormones at directly on non endocrine tissue and their release from synaptic
vesicles by exocytosis is stimulated by nerve impulses from the hypothalamus
OXYTOCIN

■ Oxytocin stimulates to target tissues during and after childbirth (partuiriton)

■ During childbirth oxytocin acts on uterine smooth muscle
■ After childbirth oxytocin acts on the muscle cells of the lactating breast
■ During childbirth increasing amounts of oxytocin are released by the posterior pituitary into the
bloodstream in response to to increasing distension of sensory stretch receptors in the uterine cervix buy
the baby’s head
■ Sensory impulses are generated and travel to the control centre in the hypothalamus stimulating the
posterior pituitary to release more oxytocin
■ In turn this stimulates more forceful uterine contractions and greater stretching of the uterine cervix as
the baby’s head is forced further downwards
■ This is is an example for positive feedback mechanism which stops soon after the baby is delivered when
distension of the uterine cervix is greatly reduced
■ Oxytocin acts on muscle cells of the lactating breast after childbirth
■ The process of milk ejection also inverse a positive feedback mechanism
■ Suckling generates sensory impulses that are transmitted from the breast to the
hypothalamus
■ The impulse trigger the release of oxytocin from the posterior pituitary And
oxytocin stimulates the contraction of myoepithelial cells around the grandular
cells and that’s of the lactating breast to contract ,ejecting milk
■ Suckling also inhibits the release of prolactin in heating hormone prolonging
prolactin secretion and lactation
ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE OR
VASOPRESSIN
■ The main effect of antidiuretic hormone is to reduce you urine output
■ Antidiuretic hormone increases the permeability to water of the Distal convoluted and
collecting tubules of the nephrons of the kidneys
■ Aise result the reabsorption of water from the glomerular filtrate is increased
■ The amount of antidiuretic hormone secreted is influenced by the osmotic pressure of
the blood circulating to the osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus
■ As the osmotic Pressure rises the secretion of antidiuretic hormone increases as in for
example dehydration and following hemorrhage
■ More water it is therefore reabsorbed and the urine output is reduced
■ This means that the body retains more water and the rise in osmotic pressure is reversed
■ When the osmotic pressure of blood is is low (e.g. after a large fluid intake), secretion
of antidiuretic hormone is produced ,less water is reabsorbed and more urine is
produced
■ At high concentrations (e.g. after severe blood loss) antidiuretic hormone causes
smooth muscle contraction especially vasoconstriction in the blood vessels of the
skin and abdominal organs
■ This has a pressor effect raising systemic blood pressure so this hormone is also
known as vasopressin