ENDOCRINE SYSTEM - II

1 Posterior Pituitary gland and other remaining glands.

POSTERIOR PITUITARY
 Oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone (ADH or
vasopressin) are the hormones synthesized in nerve cell
bodies in the hypothalamus and stored within the axon
terminals within posterior pituitary gland.

 These hormones act directly on non-endocrine tissue and

their release from synaptic vesicles by exocytosis is
stimulated by nerve impulses from the hypothalamus.

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OXYTOCIN
 Stimulates two target tissues during and after childbirth
(parturition): uterine smooth muscle and muscle cells of
the lactating breast.
 During childbirth increasing amounts of oxytocin is
released in response to increasing distension of sensory
stretch receptors in the uterine cervix by the baby’s head.
 More oxytocin is released to stimulate more forceful
contraction of uterus and greater stretching of cervix.

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 The process of milk ejection also involves a positive
feedback mechanism.
 Suckling generates sensory impulses that are transmitted
from the breast to the hypothalamus.
 This triggers the release of oxytocin from the posterior
pituitary.
 Oxytocin stimulates contraction of myoepithelial cells
around the glandular cells and ducts of the lactating
breast to contract, ejecting milk.

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 Suckling also inhibits the release of prolactin inhibiting
hormone (PIH), prolonging prolactin secretion and
lactation.

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ANTI-DIURETIC HORMONE
(ADH/VASOPRESSIN)
 Reduces urine output
 When osmotic pressure of circulating blood rises
(dehydration), ADH is released to increase reabsorption
of water from distal convoluted tubule.
 At high concentrations, e.g. after severe blood loss, ADH
causes smooth muscles contraction (vasoconstriction of
small arteries) and increases the BP.

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The relationship of the hypothalamus of
the brain with the posterior lobe of the
pituitary gland.

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THYROID GLAND
 Situated in the neck in front of the larynx and trachea at
the level of the 5th, 6th and 7th cervical vertebrae.
 It is a highly vascular that weighs around 25g surrounded
by fibrous capsule.
 It consists of two lobes one on either sides of the thyroid
cartilage.
 Thyroid output is regulated by the hypothalamus, which
signals the pituitary to release TSH to increase thyroid
production.

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 The thyroid gland requires iodine to function properly.
 In countries without adequate amounts of iodine in the
diet, the thyroid gland enlarges forming a goiter.
 These hormones regulate the metabolism of
carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. These hormones are
necessary for normal growth and development as well as
for nervous system maturation.

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 They cause an increase in the
rate of carbohydrate and lipid
breakdown into energy
molecules as well as increasing
the rate of protein synthesis. A Cretinism
lack of or low level of thyroid
hormones is called
hypothyroidism – cretinism

 The extrafollicular cells of the

thyroid gland also secrete a
hormone called calcitonin.

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Grave’s disease
PARATHYROID GLANDS
 The parathyroid glands are
four glands about the size of
raisins that are embedded in
the posterior surface of the
thyroid gland

 There are two in each lobe of

the thyroid, a superior and an
inferior gland each containing
chief cells and oxyphil cells
The positions of the parathyroid
close to capillary networks. glands and their related structures,
viewed from behind.
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 Parathyroid hormone (PTH) regulates blood calcium
levels.
 When calcium level is low, they increase its absorption
from the small intestine and reabsorption from the renal
tubules.
 If these sources are still inadequate, PTH stimulates
osteoclasts to release calcium into the blood.

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ADRENAL (SUPRARENAL) GLANDS
 Outer part – cortex; inner
part – medulla
 Adrenal cortex: secrete
adrenocorticoids
(corticosteroids)
o Glucocorticoids

o Mineralocorticoids

o Sex hormones

(androgens)

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GLUCOCORTICOIDS
 Cortisol (hydrocortisone) – main; corticosterone and
cortisone are also produced.
 Cortisol stimulates the liver to synthesize glucose from
circulating amino acids.
 It causes adipose tissue to break down fat into fatty acids
and causes the breakdown of protein into amino acids.
 The action of cortisol helps the body during stressful
situations and helps maintain the proper glucose
concentration in the blood between meals.
 Cortisol also helps reduce the inflammatory response.

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MINERALOCORTICOIDS
 The outer layer secretes a group of hormones called
mineralocorticoid hormones because they regulate the
concentration of mineral electrolytes.

 The most important of these hormones is aldosterone,

which regulates sodium reabsorption and potassium
excretion by the kidneys.

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ADRENAL MEDULLA
 The medulla is completely surrounded by the adrenal cortex.
 When stimulated by extensive sympathetic nerve supply, the
glands release the hormones adrenaline (epinephrine, 80%)
and nor adrenaline (nor epinephrine, 20%).
 Together they potentiate the fight or flight response by:

1. increasing heart rate

2. increasing blood pressure

3. diverting blood to essential organs, including the heart, brain

and skeletal muscles, by dilating their blood vessels and
constricting those of less essential organs, such as the skin
4. increasing metabolic rate 18

5. dilating the pupils.

 Adrenaline has a greater effect on the heart and
metabolic processes whereas nor adrenaline has more
influence on blood vessel diameter.

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Responses to stressors that threaten homeostasis. CRH = corticotrophin releasing hormone.

ACTH = adrenocorticotrophic hormone.
THE PANCREAS AND ITS HORMONES
 The islets of Langerhans, produce the hormones insulin
and glucagon, these hormones regulate blood glucose
levels.
 After a meal that consists primarily of carbohydrates
blood glucose concentration becomes high due to the
digestive processes.
 Insulin promotes the glucose in the blood to be
transformed in the liver into glycogen.
 In addition glucose is moved into muscle cells and
adipose tissue.
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 Through negative feedback, when blood glucose levels
fall, as between meals and during the night, the secretion
of insulin decreases.
 Glucagon also causes the breakdown of amino acids and
their conversion into glucose to raise blood sugar levels.
 Low blood sugar concentrations stimulate alpha cells to
secrete glucagon.

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Glucose storage and conversion in the liver as a source of energy
for the body. 23
 The maintenance of blood glucose levels within a normal
range is essential to body maintenance and function.
 A decline in blood glucose can cause nervous system
malfunctions.
 If the blood glucose level gets very low, the breakdown
of fats releases fatty acids and ketones causing a
lowering of blood pH, a condition known as acidosis.

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 If blood glucose levels are too high, the kidneys produce
large amounts of urine containing high amounts of
glucose, which can lead to dehydration.

 Somatostatin (GHRIH): it is produced by the

hypothalamus. It inhibits the secretion of both insulin
and glucagon besides GH from anterior pituitary.

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THE TESTES AND ITS HORMONE
 The principle male sex hormone is testosterone.
 This hormone is responsible for the development of the
male reproductive structures, and at puberty, the
enlargement of the testes and penis.
 It also causes the development of secondary male sexual
characteristics, such as the growth of facial and chest
hair, deepening of the voice, muscular development,
bone growth resulting in broad shoulders and narrow
hips.

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 It also causes the development of the male sexual drive
and aggressiveness.

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OVARIES AND ITS HORMONES
 In the ovaries of the female, two groups of hormones
estrogen and progesterone.
 Cause the development of the female reproductive
structures: the uterus, vagina, and fallopian tubes.
 Secondary female sexual characteristics also develop
such as breast enlargement, fat deposits on the hips and
thighs, bone development resulting in broad hips, and a
higher pitched voice.
 The menstrual cycle is also controlled by these
hormones.
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 LH and FSH. These hormones control the secretion of
hormones from the testes and ovaries.
 The hormones from the gonads have a negative feedback
effect on the hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary
gland.

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THYMUS GLAND AND ITS HORMONE
 The gland secretes the
hormone Thymosin,
which causes the
production of certain
white blood cells called T
lymphocytes.
 These T cells protect the
body against foreign
microorganisms, thus
helping to fight
infections.
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PINEAL GLAND AND ITS HORMONE
 The pineal gland or body is a small pinecone-shaped
structure found between the two cerebral hemispheres
attached to the upper part of the thalamus near the top of
the third ventricle.

 The pineal gland produces the hormone melatonin,

which is secreted directly into cerebrospinal fluid.

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The location of the pineal gland. 32
 Melatonin has a number of effects on the body. It inhibits
the secretion of the gonadotropin hormones LH and FSH
from the anterior pituitary gland, thus inhibiting the
functions of the reproductive system.
 Melatonin affects our sleep–wake patterns and maintains
our biologic cycles.
 Melatonin also plays a role in the onset of puberty and in
the female reproductive cycle.

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 Serotonin (5-HT) is also secreted by the pineal gland
and acts as a neurotransmitter and vasoconstrictor. It
stimulates smooth muscle contraction and inhibits gastric
secretions.

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