UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System

Chapter 9: The Endocrine System

How do body systems, including the

endocrine system, interact to
maintain homeostasis?
Imagine you’re about to bungee
jump off a bridge. Your heart is
racing, and your breathing rate has
increased. The hormones
epinephrine and norepinephrine are
coursing through your body –
preparing your body for action.
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.1

9.1 The Glands and Hormones of the

Endocrine System
The body systems that
facilitate cellular
communication and
control are the nervous
and endocrine systems.

Endocrine glands secrete chemical messengers called

hormones directly into the bloodstream. Together, the glands
and hormones make up the endocrine system. It has slower and
longer acting effects compared to the rapid actions of the
nervous system.
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.1

The Endocrine Glands

Over 200 different hormones or

hormone-like chemicals in the human
body are secreted by endocrine
glands. Glands that function
exclusively as endocrine glands are
the pituitary, pineal, thyroid,
parathyroid, and adrenal glands.
Tissues and organs that secrete
hormones but also have other
functions are the hypothalamus,
thymus, pancreas, testes, and ovaries.
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.1

Hormone Action on Target Cells

When hormones are secreted, they act on target cells to
elicit a response. Each target cell contains specific receptor
proteins for the various hormones.

Most hormones are

distributed by the
bloodstream to target
cells. Target cells
have receptors for the
hormone, and the
hormone combines
with the receptor the
same way a key fits a
lock.
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.1

The Principal Endocrine Glands and

Some of Their Hormones (Part 1)

Continued…
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.1

The Principal Endocrine Glands and

Some of Their Hormones (Part 2)

Continued…
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.1

The Principal Endocrine Glands and

Some of Their Hormones (Part 3)
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.1

Steroid (Lipid-Soluble) Hormones

Steroid hormones, such as
testosterone, estrogen, and cortisol,
are lipid-based. They are also
known as lipid-soluble hormones
because they can diffuse through
the lipid bilayer of the membranes
of the target cells. 
Once steroid hormones are inside
the target cells, they bind to their
receptor proteins. This binding
activates specific genes, causing
changes in the cells such as cell
growth.
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.1

Water-Soluble Hormones

Water-soluble hormones, such as

the amino acid-based epinephrine,
cannot diffuse across cell
membranes.
  Water-soluble hormones bind to
receptor proteins on the surface of
the target cells. This binding starts
a cascade of reactions inside the
target cells, amplifying the effect of
the hormones.
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.1

Regulating the Regulators

The secretion of the numerous
hormones from the pituitary gland is
regulated by the hypothalamus.
After receiving signals from sensors
in the body, the hypothalamus
secretes releasing hormones. These
hormones stimulate the pituitary
gland to secrete other hormones that
act on other endocrine glands.
Hormones that target endocrine Tropic hormones act on other
glands to secrete other hormones are endocrine glands. In these loops, the
hormone secreted by the target gland
called tropic hormones. will affect other tissues in the body,
such as the bones and muscles.

Continued…
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.1

Regulating the Regulators

A specific example of hormone regulation is the negative
feedback system that controls thyroid-stimulating hormone
(TSH), shown in example B.
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.1

Working Together
The nervous system and the endocrine system work together
to maintain homeostasis. The functions of these two systems
often overlap:
• some nervous system structures (such as cells in the
hypothalamus) release hormones
• some chemicals (epinephrine) act as both
neurotransmitters and hormones
• both the endocrine and nervous systems are regulated by
feedback loops
• some physiological processes require both systems to
operate (e.g., breastfeeding a baby involves nerve
messages and the hormone oxytocin)
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.1

Section 9.1 Review

UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.2

9.2 Hormonal Regulation of Growth,

Development, and Metabolism
Hormones secreted from the pituitary gland are mainly
involved in growth and development.
 
Hormones secreted from the thyroid gland are mainly
involved in regulating metabolic rate, although some
hormones are involved in growth and development.
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.2

The Pituitary Gland

The pituitary gland has two lobes (posterior pituitary and
anterior pituitary) and is about the size of a pea (1 cm). It
is located below the hypothalamus at the base of the brain.
The pituitary gland secretes
hormones involved in the body’s
growth, development, metabolism,
reproduction, and other essential
life functions. Recall that secretion
of hormones from the pituitary
gland is regulated by the hypothalamus.

Continued…
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.2

The Pituitary Gland

The posterior
pituitary gland is part
of the nervous
system. It stores and
secretes the hormones
antidiuretic hormone
(ADH) and oxytocin,
which are produced in
the hypothalamus.

Continued…
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.2

The Pituitary Gland

The anterior pituitary

gland produces and
secretes six major
hormones.
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.2

Human Growth Hormone

The anterior pituitary gland regulates growth, development, and
metabolism through the production and secretion of human
growth hormone (hGH). This hormone affects almost every
body tissue.
Growth factors from the liver and hGH
increase the following processes:
• protein synthesis
• cell division and growth
• breakdown and release
of fats in adipose tissue

The targets of hGH include the liver,

muscle cells, and bone cells.
Continued…
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.2

Human Growth Hormone

Human growth hormone stimulates the growth of muscles, connective tissue,
and bones.
 
If the pituitary gland secretes excess amounts of
hGH during childhood, it can result
in gigantism. Insufficient
hGH production results in pituitary dwarfism.

(A) The world’s tallest man stands 2.36 m in

height. His wife is 1.68 m tall. (B) People with
pituitary dwarfism have typical body proportions.

Continued…
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.2

Human Growth Hormone

Overproduction of hGH in adulthood can lead to acromegaly.
Since skeletal growth has been completed in adulthood, hGH
can no longer cause an increase in height. Instead, there is
widening of the bones and soft tissues of the body.

Acromegaly results from

excessive production of
hGH during adulthood. It
may be difficult to diagnose
the condition in the early
stages before a person’s
appearance noticeably
changes.
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.2

The Thyroid Gland

The thyroid gland is known as a “metabolic thermostat”
because the hormones it secretes regulate metabolic rate.

The thyroid gland lies below the

larynx and has two lobes. It
produces and secretes thyroxine
(T4), a hormone that increases the
rate at which the body metabolizes
fats, proteins, and carbohydrates for
energy. Thyroxine stimulates cells
in the heart, skeletal muscles, liver,
and kidneys to increase cellular
respiration.
Continued…
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.2

The Thyroid Gland

Low production of thyroxine is called hypothyroidism and can
result in cretinism. Individuals with cretinism are stocky and
shorter than average. Hormonal injections are required in
childhood so that mental development delays do not occur. Adults
with hypothyroidism experience fatigue and weight gain due to a
slow metabolism.
Overproduction of thyroxine is called hyperthyroidism.
Symptoms include anxiety, insomnia, and weight loss. It can result
in Graves’ disease, where the immune system attacks the thyroid
gland. Hyperthyroidism can be treated with medication or removal
of part of the thyroid gland. 

Continued…
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.2

The Thyroid Gland

Thyroxine secretion is controlled by negative feedback.

(1) The hypothalamus

secretes a releasing
hormone that stimulates
the anterior pituitary gland.
(2) The anterior pituitary
releases TSH into the
bloodstream. (3) TSH
targets the thyroid gland.
(4) TSH causes the thyroid
to secrete thyroxine into
the bloodstream. Thyroxine
stimulates increased
cellular respiration in target
cells throughout the body.
(5) High levels of thyroxine
cause negative feedback
on the pituitary and
hypothalamus, shutting
down production of TSH.
Continued…
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.2

The Thyroid Gland

The thyroid gland requires iodine to make thyroid
hormones. If there is insufficient iodine in the diet,
thyroxine cannot be made, and there will be no signal to
stop TSH secretion. Constant stimulation of the thyroid
gland by TSH causes a goitre, which is an enlargement of
the thyroid gland.
 
In Canada, it is uncommon for people to have goitres
because iodine is added to table salt. Other dietary sources
of iodine include seafood and dairy products.
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.2

The Parathyroid Gland and

Calcium Homeostasis
Calcium is an essential mineral for
nerve conduction, muscle
contraction, skeletal development,
and healthy teeth. Calcium levels in
the blood are regulated in a negative
feedback system by two hormones:
calcitonin and parathyroid hormone
(PTH).
When blood calcium levels are too
high, the thyroid gland secretes
calcitonin to promote uptake of
calcium by the bones.
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.2

Calcium Homeostasis
When blood calcium levels are low, the
parathyroid glands release PTH. PTH
stimulates bones to break down bone
material and secrete calcium into the
blood.
PTH also stimulates the kidneys to
reabsorb calcium from the urine. This
activates vitamin D, which stimulates
the absorption of calcium from the
digestive tract.
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.2

Section 9.2 Review

UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.3

9.3 Hormonal Regulation of the Stress

Response and Blood Sugar

What happens to your body when

you experience stress?
The endocrine system helps you
cope with stressful situations. The
stress response involves many
interacting hormone pathways,
including those that regulate
metabolism, heart rate, and
breathing.
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.3

The Adrenal Glands

The adrenal glands are a pair of organs involved in regulating
the stress response and blood sugar levels.
Each adrenal gland is composed of two layers:
• the adrenal medulla (inner layer)
• the adrenal cortex (outer layer)
Each layer produces different
hormones and functions as an
independent organ.
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.3

The Adrenal Medulla: Regulating the

Short-Term Stress Response
The adrenal medulla secretes two hormones: epinephrine and norepinephrine.
These hormones regulate a short-term stress response that is also known as the fight-or-flight response. In
response to a stressor, the following events occur in the short-term stress response:

• Neurons in the sympathetic nervous system carry a signal

from the hypothalamus to the adrenal medulla.

Continued…
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.3

The Adrenal Medulla: Regulating the

Short-Term Stress Response
The adrenal medulla’s secretion of
epinephrine and norepinephrine
triggers an increase in breathing
rate, heart rate, blood pressure,
blood flow to the heart and
muscles, and the conversion of
glycogen to glucose in the liver.
Epinephrine works quickly and
can be used in anaphylactic
emergencies to open up air Nervous stimulation causes the adrenal
passages and restore breathing. medulla to provide a rapid, but short-term,
stress response.
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.3

The Adrenal Cortex: Regulating the

Long-Term Stress Response
The adrenal cortex produces stress hormones that trigger the long-term
stress response. These hormones include the glucocorticoids,
mineralocorticoids, and gonadocorticoids.
 
Glucocorticoids increase blood sugar, and mineralocorticoids increase
blood pressure. Gonadocorticoids are sex hormones that supplement the
hormones produced by the gonads.
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.3

Cortisol
The most abundant glucocorticoid is cortisol, which regulates
the long-term stress response. In response to a stressor, the
following events occur in the long-term stress response:
• The hypothalamus secretes a
releasing hormone. This
hormone stimulates the
anterior pituitary gland to
secrete adrenocorticotropic
hormone (ACTH).
• ACTH targets the adrenal
cortex, which causes the
secretion of cortisol.
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.3

Cortisol

• Cortisol promotes the

breakdown of fats and
muscle protein to increase
blood glucose levels. It is
also an anti-inflammatory
and immune system
suppressant.

Cortisol levels are controlled in a negative feedback loop.

However, chronic high levels of cortisol can impair thinking,
damage the heart, and cause early death.
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.3

Short-Term Stress Response and

Long-Term Stress Response
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.3

Aldosterone
The main mineralocorticoid is aldosterone. It stimulates
the kidneys to increase the absorption of sodium in the
blood, which raises blood pressure.
If the adrenal cortex is damaged, Addison’s disease can
result. In this disease, there is insufficient glucocorticoid
and mineralocorticoid secretion, which results in low
blood sugar (hypoglycemia), sodium and potassium
imbalances, and weight loss.
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.3

The Hormones of the Pancreas

The pancreas functions in both the digestive and endocrine
systems. There are over 2000 clusters of endocrine cells,
called the islets of Langerhans, scattered throughout the
pancreas. These cells secrete the following hormones:
• insulin (secreted by beta cells) lowers blood glucose
by making target cells more permeable to glucose
• glucagon (secreted by alpha cells) increases blood
glucose by stimulating the liver to convert glycogen to
glucose

Both hormones are regulated by negative feedback loops.

Continued…
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.3

The Hormones of the Pancreas

(A) The silhouette shows the location of the pancreas in the human body. (B) A close-up view of the
pancreas shows one of the many islets of Langerhans on the surface of the pancreas.

Continued…
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.3

The Hormones of
the Pancreas

Negative feedback regulates blood

glucose levels within a very narrow range.
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.3

The Effects of Glucose Imbalance

Diabetes mellitus is a condition that results when the body
does not produce enough insulin or does not respond
properly to insulin. Glucose stays in the blood after meals
instead of entering the cells; as blood glucose levels rise after
meals and stay high, the result is high blood sugar
(hyperglycemia).
Hyperglycemia

• Without glucose inside the cells, an individual becomes

fatigued and begins using fat and protein for metabolic energy.
The kidneys cannot reabsorb the excess glucose, so glucose is
excreted in the urine.

• Over the long term, permanent damage occurs to the eyes,

nerves, and kidneys. Severe infection (gangrene) can occur in
the limbs.
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.3

Causes of Diabetes
There are two major types of diabetes:
• Type 1: The immune system attacks
and destroys the insulin-producing
beta cells in the pancreas.

• People with type 1 diabetes are

diagnosed in childhood and need daily
insulin injections. A light micrograph of
pancreatic beta cells
from someone with
type 1 diabetes. Many
of the beta cells have
been destroyed,
leaving behind only
non-beta cells
(stained purple), and
so the islet is
malformed.
• Type 2:

Insulin receptors on the body’s cells stop responding to insulin.

People who are overweight have a greater chance of
developing this condition. It is usually diagnosed in adulthood
and can be controlled with diet, exercise, and oral
medications.
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.3

Toward a Cure for Diabetes

In 1921, Canadian scientists Frederick Banting and Charles
Best were the first to isolate insulin and use it successfully
to treat a person with diabetes.
Today, transgenic bacteria are used to produce synthetic
insulin in large quantities for diabetes treatment.
Successful islet cells transplants have also been performed to
restore beta cell function.

A continuous blood glucose monitor and

insulin pump. The pump releases small
amounts of insulin throughout the day,
which minimizes the need for insulin
injections.
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.3

Section 9.3 Review

UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.4

9.4 Hormonal Regulation of the

Reproductive System

 Both male and female reproductive systems include a pair of

gonads. Gonads are organs that produce the following:

• reproductive cells (sperm in males, eggs in females)

• sex hormones (hormones that regulate the reproductive
system)
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.4

Structures and Functions of the Male

Reproductive System
The male reproductive system includes the testes, which
produce and store large amounts of sperm cells, and the
penis, which deposits sperm in the female
reproductive tract.
Sperm originate in the
testis (pl. testes) and
leave the male body
through the penis. The
testes are located outside
the body, in the scrotum
pouch, to keep the sperm
at around 35ºC, the
optimal temperature for
sperm. Most of the other
reproductive structures
are located inside the
body.
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.4

The Testes
The testes are composed of the following structures:
• seminiferous tubules: produce sperm in long, coiled tubes
• interstitial cells: secrete the hormone testosterone

(A) Each testis contains several compartments, packed with seminiferous tubules. (B) This
light micrograph shows a cross section of a seminiferous tubule. Some of the cells are
engaged in sperm formation (spermatogenesis).
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.4

The Testes and the Penis

Each testis can produce over 100 million sperm each day. The
sperm mature, becoming motile in a duct called the epididymis.
This duct is connected to a storage duct called the ductus
deferens, which leads to the penis.
During arousal, blood flow
increases to the penis, causing
it to expand and become erect.

Sperm cells can move out of

each epididymis through the
ductus deferens.

Continued…
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.4

Seminal Fluid
Seminal fluid (a mixture of fluids from the seminal vesicles, prostate, and
Cowper’s gland) is added to sperm cells as they travel through the ductus deferens
to the penis. The combination of sperm cells and seminal fluid is called semen.

From the ductus deferens, semen moves through

a duct called the urethra before
it is released from the penis.
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.4

Sex Hormones and the Male

Reproductive System
In embryos that are genetically male, the Y chromosome carries a
gene called the testis-determining factor (TDF) that triggers the
production of male sex hormones called androgens.

Androgens initiate the development of male sex organs in the fetus.

UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.4

Maturation of the Male Reproductive System

The male reproductive system is not mature until puberty (10 to 13 years of age). At puberty:

• The hypothalamus increases the production of gonadotropin-

releasing hormone (GnRH).
• GnRH acts on the anterior pituitary gland to release follicle-
stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH).
• FSH and LH cause the testes to produce sperm and release
testosterone.

• Testosterone acts on tissues to complete the development of

the sex organs and secondary sex characteristics (for example,
facial hair, muscle development)
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.4

Hormonal Regulation of the Male

Reproductive System
The level of sperm production is kept
constant by a negative
feedback loop.
• The release of GnRH from the
hypothalamus triggers the release
of FSH and LH from the anterior
pituitary.

• FSH causes the testes to produce

sperm.

Continued…
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.4

Hormonal Regulation of the Male

Reproductive System
• FSH also causes the
seminiferous tubules to
release a hormone called
inhibin.

• Inhibin acts on the anterior

pituitary to inhibit the
production of FSH.

• As FSH levels drop, the testes

release less inhibin.
Continued…
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.4

Hormonal Regulation of the Male

Reproductive System
Secondary sex characteristics are also
maintained by a negative feedback loop.
• LH causes interstitial cells in
the testes to release the
hormone testosterone, which
promotes the development of
muscle and facial hair.

• Testosterone acts on the

anterior pituitary to inhibit the
release of LH.
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.4

Aging and the Male

Reproductive System
Healthy males can be fertile for their entire lives. However,
around the age of 40, some men may experience
andropause – a drop in testosterone level.
Symptoms of andropause include a decrease in sperm
production, fatigue, loss of muscle mass, and possible
depression.
As men continue to age, the prostate gland enlarges and
squeezes on the urethra, making urination uncomfortable.
The gland can be removed surgically.
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.4

Structures and Functions of the Female

Reproductive System
The female reproductive system includes a pair of gonads called
ovaries. The ovaries produce only a limited number of reproductive
cells called eggs or ova.

In the female reproductive system, the

reproductive organs and ducts are inside
the body. Gametes are produced in the
ovaries, fertilization occurs in the oviduct,
and fetal development takes place in the
uterus. The vagina is both the organ of
sexual intercourse and the birth canal.
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.4

The Ovaries
Inside the follicles, the ovaries, produce eggs (ova). Each
month, a follicle matures and ruptures, releasing a mature egg
into a tube called the oviduct. This event is called ovulation.
The egg can survive in the oviduct for up to 24 hours after
ovulation.
Projections called fimbriae sweep the egg toward the oviduct.
The oviduct is lined with cilia, which beat to create a current.
The current created by the cilia carries the egg through the
oviduct to the uterus.
A mature egg is encased in a
thick membrane that must be
penetrated by a sperm cell for
fertilization to occur.
Continued…
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.4

The Uterus and Vagina

The uterus is a muscular organ that holds and nourishes a
developing fetus. The lining of the uterus, called the endometrium,
has blood vessels to provide nutrients for a fetus.
The vagina serves as an entrance for an erect penis to deposit
sperm and as an exit for a fetus during childbirth.
If fertilization occurs, the fertilized
egg (zygote) moves through the
oviduct to the uterus. The zygote
implants in the endometrium, and
embryo begins to develop.
Unfertilized eggs do not implant. The
endometrium disintegrates, and its
tissues and blood flow out the vagina.
Continued…
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.4

Sex Hormones and the Female

Reproductive System
Like males, females are born with an immature set of reproductive
organs. Females begin puberty between 9 and 13 years of age.
Female puberty and male puberty have similar hormonal processes.
In females, however, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and
luteinizing hormone (LH) act on the ovaries to produce the female
sex hormones estrogen and progesterone.

These hormones are involved in a reproductive cycle and stimulate

the development of secondary sex characteristics.
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.4

Hormonal Regulation of the Female

Reproductive System
Females have a reproductive cycle called the menstrual
cycle. This cycle ensures that an egg is released at the same
time the uterus is most receptive to a fertilized egg.
The menstrual cycle is controlled by estrogen and
progesterone. It is approximately 28 days long and is
composed of two interconnected cycles:
• the ovarian cycle, which takes place in the ovaries
• the uterine cycle, which takes place in the uterus
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.4

The Ovarian Cycle

Each follicle in each ovary contains a single, immature egg. At birth, a
female has about 2 million follicles, but by puberty only 400 000 are
viable. About 400
will develop into a mature
follicle and release an egg.
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.4

The Ovarian Cycle – Hormonal Regulation

The ovarian cycle has two stages: the follicular stage and
the luteal stage.

The following events occur during the follicular stage:

  • An increase in FSH secretion from the anterior
pituitary stimulates one follicle to mature.
• The maturing follicle releases estrogen and
progesterone. Estrogen acts on the anterior pituitary
to inhibit FSH secretion and trigger the release of
gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH).
• GnRH stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete LH,
which triggers ovulation. The follicle bursts,
releasing its egg.
Continued…
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.4

The Ovarian Cycle – Hormonal Regulation

Ovulation marks the end of the follicular stage and the
beginning of the luteal phase. The following events occur
during the luteal phase:
• Once the egg is released, LH causes
the follicle to develop into a corpus
luteum.
• The corpus luteum secretes
progesterone and estrogen to inhibit
LH and FSH production in the
anterior pituitary.
• As the corpus luteum degenerates,
progesterone and estrogen levels
drop, causing increased FSH
secretion from the anterior pituitary.
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.4

The Uterine Cycle

The uterine cycle is linked to the ovarian cycle. This cycle
prepares the uterus to receive and nurture a fertilized egg.
The events of the uterine cycle cause a build-up of blood vessels
and tissue in the endometrium. If fertilization occurs, the
fertilized egg implants in the thickened endometrium and levels
of progesterone and estrogen remain high. Progesterone
maintains the endometrium to support the developing fetus, and
estrogen stops the ovarian cycle by preventing maturation of
follicles.
If fertilization does not occur, the corpus luteum degenerates, the
levels of estrogen and progesterone drop, the endometrium
breaks down, and menstruation begins.
Continued…
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.4

The Uterine Cycle

• The uterine cycle begins on day 1
of menstruation. The corpus
luteum has degenerated and levels
of progesterone and estrogen are
low.
• Menstruation lasts for the first
five days of the cycle. At the end
of menstruation, the endometrium
is very thin. A new follicle is
maturing during this time and
releasing estrogen.

Continued…
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.4

The Uterine Cycle

• On day 6, high levels of
estrogen cause the
endometrium to begin to
thicken.
• On day 14 (after ovulation),
the release of progesterone
from the corpus luteum causes
rapid thickening of the
endometrium.
• Between days 15 and 23, the
endometrium can double or
triple in thickness.
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.4

Aging and the Menstrual Cycle

The number of viable follicles decreases with age, leading to a
decrease in estrogen and progesterone. As the levels drop, the
menstrual cycle becomes irregular, and eventually stops
altogether (menopause) around age 50.
Menopause can be marked by mood changes, high cholesterol
levels, decreased bone mass, or “hot flashes” (caused by blood
vessels alternately constricting and dilating). There is also a
greater risk of cancer of the reproductive organs.
Hormone replacement therapy (HRT) delivers low doses of
estrogen with or without progesterone. It is not widely used due
to its association with an increased risk of heart disease, blood
clots, breast cancer, and dementia. In some cases, however, the
relief of symptoms outweighs the risks of HRT.
UNIT 4 Chapter 9: The Endocrine System Section 9.4

Section 9.4 Review