Chemistry (C3) revision

The periodic table

The early periodic table
• During 1800’s, many elements discovered but scientist didn’t know atom
structure, tried to find ways to classify elements based on properties and atomic
weights
• 1863, Newlands proposed law of octaves, stated similar properties repeated
every 8th element, put 82 elements know into 7 groups according to atomic weight
– after calcium properties didn’t match well into groups, so ideas not accepted
• In 1869 Mendeleev produced better table, leaving gaps for unknown elements so
groups of known elements did have similar properties – predicted properties of
missing elements
• When some of missing elements discovered, predictions confirmed and more
readily accepted his ideas – Mendeleev’s table became the basis for modern
periodic table
The modern periodic table
• Scientists found out about protons and electrons at start of 1900s – soon after, developed
models if arrangement of electrons in atoms – elements arranged in periodic table order of
atomic number (proton numbers) and were lined up in vertical groups
• Groups of elements have similar chemical properties because their atoms have same
number of electrons in outer shell – for main groups, no. of electrons in outer shells = group
number
Reactivity within groups
Within a grows reactivity of elements depends on total no. of electrons, going down a group
are more occupied shells and atoms gets large, as atoms get bigger, electrons in outer shell
are less strongly attracted to nucleus
• When metals reacts they lose electrons so reactivity of metals in group increases going
down group
• When non-metals react they gain electrons, so reactivity of non-metals decreases going
down group
Group 1 – the alkali metals
• Group 1 elements called alkali metals, all metals that react readily with air and water
• Soft solids at room temperature with low melting an boiling points that decrease going down group, have
low densities, so lithium, sodium and potassium float on water
• React with water to produce hydrogen gas and metal hydroxide that is alkali
Sodium + water  sodium hydroxide + hydrogen
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l)  2NaOH (aq) + H2(g)
• They all have 1 electron in highest occupied energy level (outer shell) they lose electron in reactions
forming ionic compounds in which their ions have single positive charge, e.g. Na+
• React with halogens (group 7 elements) forming salts that are white/colourless crystals, e.g. sodium +
chloride  sodium chloride (2Na(s) + Cl2(L)  2NaCl(s))
• Compounds of alkali metals dissolve in water, forming solutions that are usually colourless
• Going down group 1, reactivity of alkali metals increases
Explanation of reactivity trend in group 1 - Reactivity increases going down group 1 because outer shell
electron is less strongly attracted to nucleus as no. of occupied energy levels (becoming further away from
nucleus) increases and atom gets larger
The transition metals
• Transition elements found n periodic table between group 2 and 3
• Are all metals and so are sometimes called transition metals
• Except for mercury, they have higher boiling and melting points than the alkali
metals
• React only slowly or not at all with oxygen and water at ordinary temperatures
• Most are strong and dense and are useful as building materials, often as alloys
• Form positive ions with various charges, e.g. Fe2+ and Fe3+
• Compounds of transition metals often brightly coloured
• Many transition metals and their compounds are catalysts for chemical
reactions
Group 7 – the halogens
• Halogens = non-metallic elements in group 7 of periodic table
• Exist as small molecules made up of pairs of atoms – have low melting and
boiling points that increase going down group – at room temperature fluorine is
pale yellow gas, chlorine is green gas, bromine is red-brown liquid and iodine is
grey solid, iodine easily vaporises to violet gas
• All of halogens have 7 outer shell electrons
• Halogens form ionic compounds with metals in which the halide ion have
charge of 1-
• Halogens covalently bond with non-metals forming molecules
• Reactivity of halogens decrease going down group – more reactive halogen is
able to displace less reactive halogen from aqueous solution of halide
compound
Water
Hard water
• Water that lathers easily with soap = soft water – hard water uses kore soap to
produce lather and to wash efficiently, because hard water contains dissolved
compounds that react with soap to form insoluble solid called scum – other
detergents called soap less detergents do to react with hard water to form scum
• When Water is in contact with rocks some compounds dissolve – if water
contained dissolved calcium or magnesium ions, these will react with soap to
form scum and so water is hard
• When it is heated, 1 type of hard water called temporary hard water produced
insoluble solid called scale – can be deposited in kettles, boilers and pies,
reduces efficiency of heating systems and causes blockages
• Calcium compounds are good for health, helping to prevent strong bones and
teeth – calcium may also reduce risk of heart disease
Removing the hardness
• Soft water contain dissolved substances but doesn’t contain dissolved salts that react with soap producing scum -
doesn’t produce scale when heated
• Hard water be made soft by removing dissolved calcium and magnesium ions that react with soap
• Some types of hard water affected by heating while others not - temporary hard water softened by boiling because when
heated calcium and magnesium compounds form insoluble scale and removes them from water - permanent hard water
not softened by boiling and does not produce scale when heated
How temporary hard water is softened by heating
Temporary hard water contains hydrocarbonate ions HCO3- (aq). The hydrocarbonate ions decompose when heated to
produce carbonate ions, water and carbon dioxide EQUATIONS
Carbonate ions react with calcium ions and magnesium ions in water to produce precipitates of calcium carbonate and
magnesium carbonate that are deposited as scale
• 1 method of softening either type of water is by precipitating out the ions that cause hardness, can be done by adding
washing soda, which is sodium carbonate - this is done by adding washing soda (sodium carbonate) that reacts with
calcium ions and magnesium ions in water, forming solid calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate that cannot react
with soap
• Another method is to use ion-exchange column packed with resin containing sodium/hydrogen ions - when harf water
passed through resin, calcium and magnesium ions become attached to resib and sodium'hydrogen ions take place in
water - sodium or hydrogen ions do not react with soap.
Water treatment
• Drinking water should not contain any harmful substances and should
have sufficiently low levels of dissolved salts and microbes
• Water from an appropriate source can be treated to make it safe to
drink - water is often treated by filtration or sedimentation to remove
small solids – followed by disinfection to kill microbes in the water,
chlorine is often used to kill microbes in drinking water
• Water filters can be used to improve taste of water, often contain
carbon and ion-exchange resin removing some soluble substances
and silver another substance preventing bacteria growth
• Pure water can be made y distillation, require large amounts of energy
to boil water and so would be very expensive to do on large scale.
Water issues
• When water is treated, advantages and disadvantages – must be carefully
considered before any decision to treat water is taken, particularly important for
treatment of public water supplies
• Hardness of water supplied depends on where you live, hard water causes
problems in heating systems and with washing but if used for drinking has health
benefits – if water not suitable for purpose can be treated or use alternative supply
• Chlorine particularly effective in killing microbes in water so that is safe to use –
but chlorine = poisonous, can produce other toxic compounds, must be carefully
controlled to minimise risks
• Fluoride compounds added to toothpastes and to water supplies to help prevent
tooth decay – arguments for and against adding fluorides to water supplies are
complex - 1 argument against adding it to water is that people should be able to
chose to take extra fluoride or not
Energy calculations
Comparing energy release by fuels
• When fuels and food react with oxygen reactions are exothermic and endothermic – different
amounts of energy released by diff. foods and reactions - amount of energy released measured in
joules (J) but sometimes values given in calories (1 cal = 4.2J)
• Use calorimeter to measure amount of energy released when substances burn – simplest calorimeter
is some water in glass beaker or metal can, when substances burn, heats water, temp. rises of water
depends on amount of energy released
• Amount of energy transferred to energy calculated through equation –
• Simple calorimeters not give accurate results for energy release
because much of it is used to heat surroundings, however
results can be used to compare energy released by diff. fuels
• To compare energy released by burning diff. substances either
energy change in KJ per gram or energy change in kJ per mole
can be used
• Energy change in kJ/mol be calculated by multiplying
energy change in kJ/g by relative formula mass of substance
Energy transfers in solutions
• When reaction takes place in solution, energy is transferred to or from solution
• Can do reactions in insulated container to reduce energy transfer to
surroundings
• Can measure temp. change of solution
and use this to calculate energy change
using equation
• In these calculations assume solutions behave like water – meaning that 1cm³
of solution has mass of 1g and specific heat capacity of the solution is 4.2J/g
°C
• When solid is added to water or to aq solution assume that volume of solution
does not change – also assume that 1cm³ of solution has mass of 1g that its
SHC - 4.2J/g °C
• If we know number of moles involved in reaction for which we have calculated
energy change can calculate energy change for reaction in kJ/mol
Energy level diagrams
• Show energy change for chemical reactions on energy level
diagrams
• Diff. between energy level of reactant and products is the
energy change for the reaction
• During chemical reaction bonds in the reactants must be
broken for reaction to happen – breaking bonds in endothermic
because energy is taken in
• Minimum energy needed for reaction to happen = activation
energy
• When new bonds in products formed, energy is released and
so this is exothermic
• Can show information activation energy and how energy
changed during a reaction on energy level diagram
• Catalysts increase rate of reaction by providing diff, pathway
with an activation energy that is lower – effect of a catalyst on
exothermic (shown on the right)
Calculations using bond energies
Bond energies
• In chemical reaction – energy needed to break bonds, energy released when new
bonds formed in products – is difference in these energy changes that makes overall
reaction exo or endo
• The energy needed to break bonds between 2 atoms called bond energy for that bond,
equal amount of energy is released when bond forms between 2 atoms and so can use
bind energies to calculate overall energy change for reaction - bond energies are
measured in kJ/ mol
The balanced equation for reaction needed to calculate energy change for reaction, then
calculate:
• Total amount of energy needed to break all of the bonds in reactant
• Total amount of energy released in making all of bonds in products
• Difference between 2 totals
Fuel issues
• Fossil fuels = non-renewable and cause pollution, need to develop
alternative fuels is becoming more urgent
• Hydrogen has advantages as a fuel – burns easil and releases large
amounts of energy per gram, produces no CO2 when burned, only
water
• Hydrogen be burned in combustion engines or can be used in fuel cells
to power vehicles
• Hydrogen be produced from renewable sources – disadvantages:
supply, storage and safety problems
• Vehicles that use fuels need to match performances, convenience and
costs of petrol and diesel vehicle
Analysis and synthesis
Tests for positive ions
• Some pos. ions be identified using a flame test or using sodium
hydroxide solution Metal ions Flame colour
• Some metal ions produce colours when put into flame
• Hydroxides of most metals that have ions with 2+ and 3+ charges=
insoluble in water, when sodium hydroxide added to solutions of theses
Lithium (Li+) Crimson (red)
ions a precipitate of metal hydroxide forms
• Aluminium, calcium and magnesium ions form white precipitates – Sodium (Na+) Yellow
when excess sodium hydroxide added precipitate of aluminium
hydroxide dissolves
• Copper (II) hydroxide = blue Potassium (K+) Lilac
• Iron (II) hydroxide = green
• Iron (III) hydroxide is brown Calcium (Ca2+) Red
Equations for reactions of pos. ions with sodium hydroxide solution
Can show reactipons for pos. ions with sodium hydroxide solution by Barium (Ba2+) Green
balanced ionic equation
e.g.
Fe³+ (aq) + 3OH- (aq)  Fe(OH)3 (s)
Tests for negative ions
There are 3 tests for negative ions
• Carbonate ions: add dilute hydrochloric acid to substance to see if it fizzes – if it does
and gas is produced turns limewater milky, substance contains carbonate ions
2HCl (aq) + CaCO3 (s)  CaCl2(aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
• Halide ions: add dilute nitric acid and then silver nitrate solution
- Chloride ions gives white precipitate
- Bromide ions gives cream precipitate
- Iodide ions gives yellow precipitate
AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl (aq)  AgCl (s) +NaNO3 (aq)
• Sulphate ions: add dilute hydrochloric and then barium chloride solution – if a white
precipitate forms, sulphate ions present
Titrations
• When solutions of an acid and alkali react to form salt and
water, a neutralisation reaction takes place – volumes of
solution that react exactly can be found by using titrations
• To do titration pipette used to measure accurately volume of
alkali that is put into conical flask – an indicator is added to
alkali, burette is filled with acid, added gradually to the flask
• When indicator changed colour end point has been reacted,
volume of acid used found from initial and final burette readings
• Titration should be done several times to improve repeatability
of results
Titration calculations
Concentrations and titration calculations
• Concentration of solutions measured in grams per decimetre cubed g/dm³, or moles per decimetre cubed mol/dm³
• If know mass or no. Of moles is of a substance dissolved in given volume of solution can calculate concentration
• Know volume of solution and concentration can calculate mass/ no. of moles of substance in any volume of solution
Worked examples
What is the mass of sodium hydroxide in 100cm³ of solution with concentration of 0.2 mol/dm³?
100cm^3 contains – 100 x 0.2 / 1000 mol = 0.02 mol
1 mol NaOH = 40g 0.02 x 40 = 8g
• Titrations are used to find volumes of solution that react exactly
• If the concentrations of one of the solutions is known, and volumes that react together are known, concentration of the other solution
can be calculated – this information be used to find amount of substance in sample
Worked examples
Students found that 25cm^3 of sodium hydroxide solution with unknown concentration reacted with exactly 20.0cm^3 of 0.5mol.dm^3
hydrochloric acid, what is the concentration of sodium hydroxide solution?
Concentration of HCL = 0.50MOL/DM^3 so 0.50 mol of HCl dissolved in 1000cm^3 of acid
Therefore 20.0cm^3 of acid contains .050/1000mol = 0.010 mol HCl, equation tells us exactly 0.010 mol of HCl reacts with 0.010 mol
of NaOH, meaning must been 0.010 moles of NaOH in 25.0 cm^3 of solution, concentration of NaOH solution = (0.010/25) x 1000 =
0.40mol/dm³
Chemical analysis
• Chemists and other scientists use variety f methods to analyse substances
for many purposes like environmental, medical forensic investigation
• May use traditional ‘wet chemistry’ methods or instrumental methods like gas
chromatography and mass spectrometry
• Some methods, called qualitative, used to find out simply if a substance is in
sample
• Other techniques tell us how much of substance is in sample, like titration and
gas chromatography – mass spectrometry and these are known as
quantitative methods
• Large databases of results of analyses been built up with aid of computers I
used to identify substances in samples to identify individuals or to monitor
changed in amounts of substances over time
Chemical equilibrium
Reversible equations and equilibrium
• Some chemical reactions are reversible, meaning products can react together to make reactants again
• In closed system no reactant/products cn escape, for reversible reaction in closed system equilibrium is reached
when rate of forward reaction is equal to rate of reverse reaction – at equilibrium both reactions continue to
happen but amounts of reactant and products remain constant
Changing concentration of reactant or product
• Amounts of reactant and products for reversible reactant be changed by changing reaction conditions
• Is important in chemical industry in controlling conditions, e.g. increasing concentration of reacts will cause kore
products to be formed as system tries to achieve equilibrium
• If a product is removed more reactant will react to try and achieve equilibrium and so more products are formed
• E.g. ICL + Cl2   ICL3
• If chlorine is added, concentration is increased and more ICL3 is produced
• If chlorine is removed, concentration of chlorine is decreased and more ICL is produced
Altering conditions
Changing pressure Changing temperature
• If change conditions of system at equilibrium, • RR are exothermic in 1 direction and endo in
position of equilibrium shifts as if to try to the other
cancel out change • Increasing temp. favours reaction in endo
• For RR that have diff. no. of molecules of reaction – equilibrium shifts as if to lower
gases on 1 side of equation than other, temp. by taking energy
changing pressure affects equilibrium position • Decreasing temp favour exothermic reactions
• E.g. if pressure increased E position will shift
to try to reduce pressure, favouring reaction If forward reaction If forward reaction
that produces fewer molecules of gas produces mire molecules of produces fewer molecules
gas… of gas…
If forward reaction is If forward reaction is …increase in P decreases …increase in P increases
exothermic… endothermic… amount of products formed amount of products formed
…increase in T decreases amount …increase in T increases amount
of products formed of products formed
…decrease in T increases amount …decrease in T decreases
…decrease in P increases ….decrease in P decreases
of products formed amount of products formed amount of products formed amount of products formed
Making ammonia – the Haber Process
• Haber process used to manufacture ammonia, can be used to make fertilisers and
other chemicals
• Nitrogen from air and hydrogen usually from natural gases, are purified and mixed
in correct proportions
• Gases are passed over iron catalyst at temp. of about 450°C and pressure of
about 200 atmospheres
• Conditions chosen to give fast rate of reaction and reasonable yield of ammonia
• Some of ammonia produced breaks down into N and H and yield of ammonia is
only about 15%
• Gases that come out of reactor cooled so ammonia condenses – liquid ammonia
separated from unreacted gases, unreacted gases recycled so not to be wasted
The economics of the Haber Process
Why there is an optimum pressure for the Haber Process
• In Haber process N and H react to make ammonia in reversible reaction

• Products have fewer molecules of gas than reactants, so higher pressure greater yield
of ammonia – however, higher pressure more energy is needed to compress gas, high
pressure also needs stronger reaction vessels and pipes which increases costs
• Pressure of 200 atmospheres often used as compromise between costs and yield
Why there is an optimum temperature for the Haber Process
• Forward reaction = exothermic and so lower temperature greater yield of ammonia,
However – reaction rate decreases as temp. lowered and iron catalyst becomes
ineffective so it would take longer to produce any ammonia
• Compromise temperature of 450 degrees C used to give reasonable yield of ammonia
Organic chemistry
Structures of alcohols, carboxylic acids and esters
• Organic molecules from the basis of living and all contain carbon
atoms, carbon atoms bond covalently to each other to form
‘backbone’ of many series of organic molecules
• Series of molecules that have general formula called
homologous series – alkanes and alkenes are 2 homologous
series made of only hydrogen and carbon atoms
• Alcohols contains functional group –O-H – if 1 H atoms from
each alkane molecules is replaced with an –O-H group, get
homologous series of alcohols
• First 3 members d this series are methanol, ethanol, propanol
• Structural formula shows which atoms were bonded to each
carbon atom ad functional group, structural formula for ethanol
CH3CH2OH
• Carboxylic acids have functional group –COOH
• First 3 members of Carboxylic acids are ethanoic acid, ethanoic
acid and propanoic acid – structural formula HCOOH, CH3COOH
and CH3CH2COOH
• Esters have functional group –COO- - if Ha atoms in –OOH group
od carboxylic acid is replaced by hydrocarbon group the
compounds is an ester
• Ethyl ethanoate has structural formula CH3COOCH2CH3
Properties and uses of alcohol
• Alcohols with smaller molecules, e.g. methanol, ethanol, propanol mix well with water and
produce neutral solution
• Many organic substances dissolve in alcohols and so this makes them useful solvents
• Ethanol is main alcohol in wine, beer and other alcoholic drinks
• Alcohols burn in air, when burned completely they produce carbon dioxide and water, can be
used as fuels, e.g. spirit burners or in combustion engines can be mixed with petrol

• Sodium reacts with alcohols to produce H gas, but reactions are less vigorous that when sodium
reacts with water
• Alcohols can be oxidised by chemical oxidising agents like potassium, dichromate to produce
carboxylic acids – some microbes in air can also oxide solutions of ethanol to produce ethanoic
acid, which turns alcohol drinks sour and is main acid in vinegar
Carboxylic acids and esters
• Carboxylic acids dissolve in water to produce solutions with pH value of less than 7, have properties typical of all
acids, when carboxylic acids are added to carbonates they fizz because react to produce carbon dioxide – salt and
water also produced
• Carboxylic acids diff, from other acids because they react with alcohols in presence of an acid catalyst to produce
esters, e.g. ethanol and ethanoic react together when mixed with sulphuric acid as a catalyst to produce ethyl
ethanoate and water
• Esters are volatile compounds and are distinctive smells – some esters have pleasant fruity smells and are used as
flavouring and in perfumes
Why carboxylic acids are weak acids
• In aqueous solution, hydrochloric acid ionises completely to hydrogen ions and chloride ions
• Acids that ionise completely in aq solution known as strong acids
• When ethanoic acid dissolves in water, does not ionise completely and some of ethanoic acid molecules remain as
molecules in solution
• Acids that don’t ionise completing in aq solutions known as weak acids
• In aq solution of equal concentration, weak acids have higher pH and react more slowly that strong acids
Organic issues
• Alcohols, carboxylic acids and esters are important organic chemicals that can
be used in many ways in food, as solvents and as fuels for benefit of society
• However, depending on how they are used, also be disadvantages, e.g.
alcoholic drinks and solvents be abused leading to health and social problems
• Biofuels offer alternate to fossil fuels and may help with problem if diminishing
resources and climate change
• Some of crops used for production of biofuels requires use of agriculture land
that could be used to grow food
• Advantages and disadvantages of any use of resources many change over
time or when there are new developments and so monitoring and careful
research are researched
How many carbon atoms?
1 Monkeys
2 Eat
3 Peanut
4 Butter
5 Perfectly

Methane
Ethane
Propane
Butane
Pentane