HYDROLOGY

Edy Trihatmoko | Semarang, 2020

 2

Precipitation-Rain
 3

» How is it formed?
» Why there’s a cloud able to pour the rain why others can’t?
» What are the factors of forming of the precipitation?
 4

Rainfall
Fall

Infiltrated

Flowing/moving

Evaporated
5
 6

Cloud Droplet Forming

» Fog and cloud droplet are formed by the

aggregation of the water vapour molecules through
a condensation process in the nucleus of
condensation
» In the RH 75% - 80% most of the condensation core
begins to grow. As RH approaches 100%, the other
nucleus of condensation become activated.
 7

» Initially, small drops grow rapidly in a parcel of

cooled air, but as they become large, their growth
rate decreases rapidly so that the condensation
growth process becomes too slow to produce
raindrop-sized (it takes days)
 8

» In the 'hot clouds', raindrops can grow by collision and

coalescence processes.

» In these processes, the large drops that fall will increase in

size due to the impact with small drops in the trajectory of the
fall.

» This mechanism works because large drops fall faster than

small drops.
9
 10

What determines the velocity of

the raindrops?

» There are 2 forces acting on the falling object:

⋄ Gravity force: accelerates objects towards the earth's surface
⋄ Friction force: air resistance
» When these two forces are in balance the object falls at a steady and
constant rate (terminal velocity)

» Large drops terminal velocity> small drops

 11

collision and coalescence

mechanism

» Updrafts in clouds tend to hold falling drops

to rise. Drops with a terminal velocity less
than updraft velocity will be lifted to a higher
level into the cloud.

» Drops will fall from the cloud when their

terminal velocity exceeds the updraft speed.
 12

collision and coalescence

mechanism

» Drop growth by collision and coalescence is

increased by:
⋄ A wide spectrum of drip size resulting
in a wide range of terminal drip
velocity.
 13

collision and coalescence

mechanism
» The growth due to the collision and coalescence process increases also
because:
⋄ High drip concentration
⋄ Updraft in a strong cloud that keeps the drops rising in the cloud
which gives them more time to grow
⋄ The electric charge on the drops increases the chance of collision
with other drops
» The collision and coalescence process is a very important process to
produce deposition in hot clouds that do not contain ice.
 14

collision and coalescence

mechanism
» Only the relatively shallow clouds that do not expand high into the
troposphere have nothing but drops of water.
⋄ example: stratus clouds
 15

» Large clouds expand upward into the troposphere where temperatures

are below freezing levels

» These cold clouds contain super cooled water drops and ice.
 16

Ice formation in cold clouds

» Drops of pure, cold water will NOT freeze at 0°C.
» When the temperature cooling below 0°C, the large water drops tend to
freeze first, overtaking the smaller ones.
» When water drops require a lower temperature to freeze, super cooled
water droplets in cold clouds tend to decrease with altitude.
» Spontaneous icing (homogeneous freezing) occurs only at very low
temperatures. Most of the drop formation in clouds is the result of Ice
nucleus action.
 17

Ice Nucleus
» There are three types of the ice nucleus:
⋄ Deposition Nuclei collect individual water molecules from the
vapour so that a layer of ice coats the surface of the nucleus.
⋄ Freezing Nuclei works in super cooled water drops to provide a
surface for ice to form
⋄ Contact Nuclei impact with super cooled water drops and cause
them to freeze.
» Ice nucleus are aerosol particles consisting of undissolved material
such as dust. The shards of ice crystals can act as ice nucleus.
» The lack of ice nucleus prevents the onset of rapid cloud ice formation.
 18

Water Vapor Preassure

» Tekanan uap jenuh meningkat dengan
cepat dengan meningkatnya
temperature
» Bagaimana variasinya di bawah
temperatur 0 derajat Celcius?
 19

Partikel es dan pembentukan

presipitasi
» Tekanan uap air jenuh di atas es
kurang dari yang di atas air cair
superdingin
 20

Partikel es dan pembentukan

presipitasi
» Ketika tetes air likuid superdingin dan partikel es berada dalam parsel udara
yang sama , tetes cair mencoba untuk menjaga tekanan uap lebih tinggi
daripada yang es dapat tolerir.
» Uap menjadi mengendap pada partikel es.
» Jadi uap air mengendap pada partikel es sama cepatnya seperti dia menguap
dari tetes air. Hasil netto-nya adalah bahwa kristal es tumbuh pada
pengeluaran tetes air
» Proses pertumbuhan kristal es, yang mem-promote pertumbuhan kristal es
yang cepat disebut sebagai proses Wegener-Bergeron-Findeisen atau proses
Bergeron. Proses Bergeron merupakan mekanisme dominan pembentuk
presipitasi di lintang tengah.
 21

Bergeron process
 22

Ice particles and precipitation

formation
» Ice particles sometimes collide and stick together to form larger particles.
This process is called aggregation and causes the formation of ice crystal
aggregations, commonly known as snowflakes.
» Some of the collisions result in the fragmentation or splintering of ice crystals,
thus forming ice crystal fragments, some of which can act as ice nucleus.
» Rime ice is formed when tiny super cooled liquid cloud drops collide with ice
crystals and ice crystal aggregates, freeze and stick to their surface. This is
classified as an accretion process.
23
 24

Rainfall Illustration

» Rainfall is measured in mm
» Evaporation is relatively small 4-6 mm per day
» Rainfall of 1 mm is:
⋄ Rain that falls on each surface of 1 m2 as high as 1mm,
without evaporating, absorbing or flowing
⋄ or : The amount of rain that falls is 1 litre on every 1 m2
area
 25

Rainfall Illustration

⋄ Rainfall 10 mm over an area of 100 m2 = 1000 litres of water = 1

cubic meter of water
⋄ Rainfall of 100 mm in an area of 1 km2 = 100 million liters of
water = 100 thousand cubic meters of water
 26

Rain Thickness 𝐻=𝑘𝑡 𝑛

» In mm/minutes
» H = thickness (mm)
» t = rain duration (minute)
» k = confession
» n = an exponent that is a positive real number and less than 1 (one),
generally 0.20-0.50
 27

Rain Thickness 𝐻=𝑘𝑡 𝑛

 28

Rainfall Intensity 𝑄=0,278. 𝐶 . 𝐼 . 𝐴

» Is a rational method with units of m3/s

» Q = discharge (m3/s)
» 0,278 = Constants, used if the unit area uses km2
» C = Flow coefficient
» I = Rainfall intensity during concentration time (mm/h)
» A = area of measurement (km2)
 29

( )
𝑅24 24 2 /3

Rainfall Intensity 𝐼=
24 𝑇 𝐶

» It is a Mononobe Method in mm/hour

» I = rainfall intensity (mm/hour)
» Tc = concentration time (minutes)
» R24 = rainfall in 24 hours (mm/day)
 30

( )
2 /3
𝐿
Concentration Time 𝑇𝑐=0,0195
√𝑠

» In minutes
» Tc = concentration time
» L = Channel length (m)
» S = the slope of the channel
 31

Rainfall Missing Data Estimation

𝑃 1 + 𝑃 2 + 𝑃 3 +…+ 𝑃 𝑛
𝑃𝑥 =
𝑛
» Is a conventional/average method
» Px = Rainfall lost at weather station x  St 2
» P1, P2, P3.. Pn = Rainfall at weather station 1,2,3, …,n
» n = Number of weather stations
St 1 St 2 St3

2007 1000 = 666.7 1000

 32

Rainfall Missing Data Estimation

» Is the normal ratio method

» Dx = Maximum daily rainfall height data at station x
» n = Number of stations around x
» di = Maximum daily rainfall height data around station x
» Anx = Average annual rainfall at station x
» Ani = Average annual rainfall around station x
 33

Rainfall Missing Data Estimation 1 1 1

2
P1 + 2
P2 + P3
( dX 1 ) ( dX 2 ) ( dX 3 )2
𝑃 𝑥=
1 1 1
2
+ 2
+
( dX 1 ) ( dX 2 ) ( dX 3 )2
» Is an inversed square distance method
» Px = Questioned height of rain
» P1, P2, P3 = Rainfall data at surrounding stations for the same period
» dX1, dX2, dX3 = Distance of station X to each station 1,2,3
 34

XA
Rainfall Missing Data Estimation X A= X B . 𝑋𝐵

» Is an algebraic mean method

» XA = The lost rain data at Station A
» XB = rainfall at station B in the same year as station A
» , = Average rainfall at stations A and B
 35

Rainfall Classification

» Daily Rainfall
Criteria Rainfall (mm/24 h)
Very Light <5
Light 5 – 20

Moderate 21 – 50

Heavy 51 – 100
Very Heavy > 100
 36

Rainfall Classification

» Hourly Rainfall

Criteria Rainfall (mm/24 h)

Very Light <1
Light 1–5

Moderate 6 – 10

Heavy 11 – 20
Very Heavy > 20
 37

Rainfall Classification
» Classification of Monthly Rainfall in the Rainy Season
Criteria Day of Rain Rainfall Rainfall
Estimation (mm) Accumulation in a
month
Very Light 5–6 10 – 15 10 – 15
Light 6–7 60 – 70 70 – 85

Moderate 6–7 180 – 210 250 – 295

Heavy 2–4 150 – 250 400 – 545

Very Heavy 1–2 110 – 300 510 – 845
20 – 26 510 - 845
 38

THANK YOU
Any questions?
You can find me at
» edytrihatmoko@mail.unnes.ac.id