UNDERSTANDING

COMMUNICATION
Osei Yaw Akoto (PhD)
Department of English
KNUST
2021/2022
 Defining Communication
• Write down your own definition of communication. Be
detailed as possible.
• With a group, discuss your definitions – what was different?
What was similar?
• Together with your group, come up with the BEST possible
definition to share with the class.

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 Communication Defined
• A process of exchanging information, ideas,
thoughts, feelings and emotions through speech,
signals, writing and behaviour.
• An exchange of thoughts, opinions or information by
speech, writing or signs.
• A process through which individuals mutually
exchange ideas, values, thoughts, feelings & actions
with one or more people.
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 Elements of Communication: Sender
• The person who begins the communication interaction
by having a thought or intended message to send.
• The background, experience, attitudes, and skills of the
sender always affect the message
• Who can this be?
• Does it have to be a singular person?
• Do they have to know who their audience is before
they decide to communicate?
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 Elements of Communication:
Encoding
• The process of creating the message to
be transmitted from a sender to the
destination.
• Converting one’s thoughts and ideas into
content that can be transmitted.
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 Elements of Communication: Message
• It is the information and ideas relayed by the
sender to the audience.
• What is the goal of the message?
• Did the person send the intended message?
• Verbal – the actual words communicated (words
are symbols) – written, spoken, signed
• Nonverbal – how you say it (voice, body language)
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 Elements of Communication: Channel
• It’s the medium through which a message is sent or received.
• Factors to consider when selecting a channel considered:
• availability of channels
• Purpose
• Suitability
• types of receivers
• types of message
• preference of sender and receiver
• communication skills of the sender
• formality
• cost, etc.
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 Elements of Communication:
Channel
What would inform your choice of any of these channels for
communication?
1. Memo
2. Email
3. WhatsApp
4. Graffiti
5. Phone call
6. Letter
7. Text message
8. Social media: Twitter, Facebook, Instagram
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 Elements of Communication: Receiver
• The person or people who receive the speaker’s
message.
• The receiver of the message could be one person or
thousands of people.
• The receiver of the message is also known as the
audience.
• Audiences can be divided into two groups: specialists
and the general audience.
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 Types of receiver/audience
• Specialists have interest, experience, and
knowledge in a particular technical field.
• These people have little understanding of the
technical details in a field or on a subject matter.
• The general audience includes everyone else:
clients, customers, patients, sales
representatives, suppliers, and the general
public.
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 Elements of Communication: Decoding
• This concerns how the destination
interprets and processes the
message transmitted by the sender.
• Was the intended message received?

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 Elements of Communication: Feedback
• It is the message or response sent from the
destination (listener or reader) back to the
speaker.
• Shows understanding and interpretation of the
speaker’s message.
• Can be verbal or nonverbal.
• Can be positive or negative.
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Guidelines for giving feedback
• Specific rather than general
• Focused on behavior
• Takes into account the needs of the receiver
• Solicited
• Sharing of information rather than advice
• Well timed
• Involves the amount of information receiver can use
• Checked for clear communication

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 Elements of Communication:
Interference
• It’s anything that could impede the
process of communication.
• External – noises and sounds
• Internal – feelings, emotions,
thoughts of the speaker and/or the
listener
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 Characteristics of
•It’s a Communication
process
•It’s bipolar
•It’s a system
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Communication Process
 Importance of
• Increases productivity
•
communication
Reduces stress
• Enhances relationships
• Saves time and money
• Saves life
• Brings development
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 Goals of communication
• To change behaviours
• To ensure understanding
• To persuade
• To get and give information
• To get something done
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 Achieving communication
Credibility is when the goals
• For communication to achieve its goals, there need to be:
• message sent by the sender inspires
trust and belief in the receiver.
• Congeniality is when the message sent by the sender is
pleasant to the receiver, therefore appeals to the receiver’s
satisfaction or confirmation.
• Confidentiality is when the message received is to be kept as
a secret without divulging or disclosing it.
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 Types of communication
Communication on be classified based:
1. the means/channels of communication
2. the purpose of communication
3. the levels of communication
4. the pattern of communication
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Based on the communication channels used
• Verbal Communication: It involves the
use of words.
• Nonverbal Communication (it includes
extralinguistic, paralinguistic, and all
the non-linguistic means of
communication) www.knust.edu.gh

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 Verbal communication
• It refers to the form of communication in
which message is transmitted through
words.
• Verbal Communication is divided into:
• Oral Communication
• Written Communication
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 Students’ Activities
• Outline 10 examples of oral
communication
• Outline 10 examples of written
communication

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 Oral communication
• Spoken words are used. It includes face-to-face conversations, speech, telephonic
conversation, video, radio, and television. Oral communication is influenced by
pitch, volume, speed and clarity of speaking.
Advantages
Feedback is quick.
By reading facial expression and body language one can guess whether he/she
should trust what’s being said or not.
Disadvantages
Except recorded, oral communication is transient, and may not be available for future
reference.
Revising, editing or proofreading the sent message is impossible.
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 Written Communication
• Written signs or symbols are used to communicate.
Messages can be transmitted via email, letter, report, memo
etc.
Advantages
Messages can be edited and revised.
It provides record and backup.
It enables receiver to fully process it and send appropriate feedback.
Disadvantages
Feedback is not instant. It is time-consuming as compared to word-of-
mouth
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 Nonverbal Communication
• It’s the sending or receiving of wordless messages such as
gesture, body language, posture, tone of voice or facial
expressions.
• Appearance Speaker – clothing, hairstyle, neatness, use of
cosmetics
• Surrounding – room size, lighting, decorations, furnishings
• Body Language facial expressions, gestures, postures
• Sounds, Voice Tone, Volume, Speech rate

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 Forms of nonverbal Communication
• Proxemics: space (place or location)
• Chronemics: perception and use of time
• Oculesics: eye contact
• Haptics: touch
• Kinesics: bodily movement
• Vocalics: non-verbal associated with the voice or sound (e.g. speed, pitch,
intonation, stress, volume, laughter, crying, hissing, coughing, vocal fillers,
silence, pause, etc.)
• Paralanguage includes oral cues in the stream of spoken utterances except the
words themselves. It involves the use of tone, pitch or manner of speaking.)
• Objectics: the way artefacts and the environment are used to communicate.

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Paraverbal or Vocal Communication Exemplified
• I didn’t buy Apostle the Bible.
• I didn't BUY Apostle the Bible.
• I didn't buy APOSTLE the Bible.
• I didn't’t buy Apostle THE BIBLE.

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Nonverbal signals in written
communication
• Bold • Stickers
• Underline • GIF
• Font size • UPPERCASE
• Font type • Lowercase
• Emojis • Indentation
• Emoticons • Colours
• Textual space • Visuals: maps, tables, graphs,
pictures
• Punctuation marks
• Italics
 Importance of nonverbal Communication
• To repeat the verbal
• To replace the verbal
• To be used concurrently with the
verbal

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 Based on the purpose
• Formal communication: It follows line of authority & is
generally used in organization to achieve organizational
objectives.
• It occurs through organization flow of authority (organogram).
• Informal communication:  It does not follow the line of
authority.
• Examples are gossip, chitchat and WhatsApp chats.
• It is very fast & usually takes place in social groups like friends,
family, peer groups, etc.
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 Based on levels of communication 1
• Intrapersonal communication: It occurs within an individual.
• It is the basis of one’s feelings, biases, prejudices and beliefs.

• Interpersonal communication: It occurs between two people

but can involve more in informal conversations.
• Examples: talking to friends; teacher and student discussing
an assignment; a patient and a doctor discussing a treatment .
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 Forms of Interpersonal
Communication
• Monolineal Forms: (e.g. giving information,
giving commands/directives/ writing letters, etc.)
• Bilineal Forms: (e.g. conversation, question-and-
answer, letter and reply, prosecution and defence,
etc.)
• Multilineal Forms: (e.g. meetings, interviews,
conversations, discussions, etc.)
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Based on levels of communication 2
• Small Group Communication: It occurs within
formal or informal groups or teams.
• It is group interaction that results in decision
making, problem solving and discussion within an
organization.
• Examples: a group planning an excursion; a team
working together on a project.
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Based on levels of communication 3
• One-to-Group Communication: It involves a
speaker speaking to an audience.
• Examples are a teacher and a class of
students; a preacher and a congregation; a
speaker and an assembly of people in the
auditorium.
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Based on levels of communication 4
• Mass Communication: It is the electronic or print transmission
of messages to the general public.
• Outlets called mass media include radio, television, film, and
printed materials designed to reach large audiences.
• Examples: a television commercial; a magazine article; Books,
Newspapers and Billboards.
• The key is that you are reaching a large amount of people
without it being face to face.
• Feedback is generally delayed with mass communication.
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 Forms of Mass Communication
• The monolineal: (e.g. radio/TV
speeches/announcements, sermons, presidential
speeches, etc.)
• The bilineal: (e.g. classroom situation – teacher
and students, etc.)
• The multilineal: (e.g. meetings, convocations,
political debates, etc.)
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 Based on levels of communication 5
• Organizational communication: It takes place when
individuals and groups within an organization
communicate with each other to achieve
established organizational goals.
• Communications that occur with a university,
government institution (i.e. ministries), and
corporate institutions such banks, hospitals, etc.
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Based on patterns of communication 1
1. One-way communication: It take place when message are delivered to
the audience from the communicator only without constant feedback.
Example of one-way communication is lecture delivered in a classroom.
2. Two-way communication: It takes place when both the communicator
and audience take part in the process. The audience may raise
questions and add information, ideas & opinions on the subject.
3. One-to-one communication: Communication between one sender and
one recipient at one time. A doctor providing information to a patient
is an example of one-to-one communication.

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 Based on patterns of communication 2
4. One-to-many communication: Where one person
communicates with may people at the same time, it is termed as
one- to-many communication. A nurse providing health
education to a community is an example of one-to-many
communication
5. Many-to-one communication: Many-to-one communication
takes place when several people communicate with one person
at the same time. A panel of expert taking an interview is an
example of many-to-one communication.
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 Barriers of Communication 1
• Physiological barriers
• Poor retention due to memory problem
• Lack of attention
• Discomfort due to illness
• Poor sensory perception
• Hearing problems
• Poor listening skills
• Information overload
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 Barriers of Communication 2
•  Environmental barriers
• Loud background noise
• Poor lighting
• Uncomfortable setting
• Unhygienic surrounding & bad odour
• Very hot or cold room
• Distance

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 Barriers of Communication 3
• Psychological barriers
• Misperception & misunderstanding
• Distrust & unhappy emotions
• Emotional disturbances
• Psychotic or neurotic illness
• Worry & emotional disturbances
• Fear, anxiety & confused thinking

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 Barriers of Communication 4
• Social barriers
• Diffidence in social norms, values & behavior
• Social taboos
• Different social strata
• Cultural barriers
• Ethnic, religious & cultural differences
• Cultural tradition, values & behaviour 

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 Barriers of Communication 5
• Semantic barriers
• Language barriers
• Faulty language translation
• Individual differences in expression & perception
• Past experiences of an individual failure to listen
• Organizational barriers
• Organizational policy, rules & regulation
• Technical failure
• Time pressure
• Complexity of organization structure due to hierarchy
• Size of the organization
• Communication process-related barriers
• Unclear & conflicting message
• Inappropriate channels
• Lack of or poor feedback
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Overcoming communication barriers
• Send clear message
• Focus on the receiver
• Use multiple channels to communicate
• Ensure appropriate feedback
• Be aware of your own state of
mind/emotions/attitude 
• Avoid information overload

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 Students’ Activity
• How to overcome communication
barriers is informed by the barrier at
stake.
• Discuss among yourselves the
strategies you may adopt to respond
to the barriers discussed above.
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Effective communication defined
• Effective Communication is a two way process – sending
the intended message and to the intended receiver.
• Effective communication is the communication which
produces intended or desired result.
• It is important to know the psychology of the people you
are interacting with for communication to be effective.
• Effective communication includes all the aspects of
language to appeal the listener.

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Intentional vs. unintentional Communication
• Communication is to be intentional (effective)
when the intended message is sent to the
intended audience.
• Unintentional communication occurs when an:
• intended message is sent to an unintended audience
• unintended message is sent to an intended audience
• unintended message is sent to an unintended
audience

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Techniques of Effective Communication 1

• Conversational skills
• Focusing
• Paraphrasing
• Sharing information
• Providing information
• Asking relevant question
• Clarifying & summarizing
• Sharing humour
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Techniques of Effective Communication 2
• Listening skills
• Active listening
• Using silence
• Listening with purpose
• Acknowledgement of message
• Giving feedback
• Technical skills
• Using nonverbal cues
• Sharing feeling
• Sharing observations
• Sharing hope
• Presenting reality
• Sharing empathy
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 REFERENCES

• Lunenburg, F. C. (2010). Communication: The Process,

Barriers, And Improving Effectiveness. Schooling Vol.1(1),
pp.1-11.
• Sekyi-Baidoo, Y. (2003). Learning and communicating (2nd
Ed.). Accra: Infinity Graphics Ltd.

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