Properties of steam

• Topics: properties of steam; determination

of dryness fraction of steam, steam plant
layout, boiler performance, the Rankine
cycle and elements of steam plant
improvement.
T-v Diagram

Quality x :
 Properties of steam
“f” refers to water, hf is enthalpy of water
“fg” refers to phase variation, hfg is enthalpy
of latent heat.
“g” refers to dry saturated steam, hg is
enthalpy of dry steam
“s” refers to the saturated state, ts is the
saturation temperature and ps saturation
pressure.
 Quality or dryness fraction

For a two-phase liquid-vapor mixture, the ratio of

the mass of vapor to the total mass of the
mixture is called quality or dryness fraction,
represented as x.

mvapor mvapor
x 
mtotal mvapor  mliquid
• Dryness Fraction: Dryness fraction is
defined as the mass of dry steam per kg of
wet steam. It is represented by x.
• Enthalpy

• Specific Volume

• Internal Energy
 Specific Volume

The specific volume of a two-phase liquid-vapor

mixture can be determined by using the saturation
tables and the definition of quality.
V  Vliq  Vvap

V Vliq  Vvap Vliq Vvap

   
m m m m

mliqliq mvap vap  mliq   mvap 

    liq    vap
m m  m   m 
 Specific Volume

The specific volume of a two-phase liquid-vapor

mixture can be determined by using the
saturation tables and the definition of quality.

mliqliq mvap vap  mliq   mvap 

    liq    vap
m m  m   m 

  (1  x) f  x g   f  x( g   f )

   f  x fg
 3.3.2 Specific Internal Energy

The specific internal energy of a two-phase liquid-

vapor mixture can be determined by using the
saturation tables and the definition of quality.

mliquliq mvapuvap  mliq   mvap 

u    uliq   uvap
m m  m   m 

u  (1  x)u f  xu g  u f  x(u g  u f )

u  u f  xu fg
 Specific Enthalpy

In many thermodynamic
analyses the sum of the
internal energy U and the
H  U  pV
product of pressure p and
volume V appears.
Because the sum U + pV
appears so frequently, we
h  u  p
give this combination a
name, enthalpy, and a
distinct symbol, H. h  u  p
 Specific Enthalpy

The specific internal energy of a two-phase liquid-

vapor mixture can be determined by using the
saturation tables and the definition of quality.

mliqhliq mvap hvap  mliq   mvap 

h    hliq   hvap
m m  m   m 

h  (1  x)h f  xhg  h f  x(hg  h f )

h  h f  xh fg
• Enthalpy of boiler feed water ho = cp x to
• Where to is temperature of supply water and
from tables ho = hf.
• Enthalpy of dry saturated steam hg
• From steam tables hg = hf +hfg kJ/Kg
• Enthalpy of wet steam hw
• Hw = hf + xhfg kJ/kg where x is dryness fraction
• Enthalpy of superheated steam (hsup)
• Hsup = hg + cp(tf – ts) kJ/kg or use the h-s chart
• Where cp is specific heat capacity of
superheated steam in kJ/kg K; tf is superheat
temperature.
• Specific volume of steam
• Volume of dry steam Vg from steam
tables, Vg at a certain boiler pressure p
kPa.
• Volume of wet steam, Vw = xVg m3/kg
• Where x is dryness fraction
• Volume of superheated steam (Vsup)
• Obtain from tables (v)
 Mass of steam

total volume of dry steam

mg 
Vg
Mass of wet steam (mw)
total volume of wet steam
mw 
xVg
Mass of superheate d steam (Vsup)
total volume of superheate d steam
Msup 
Vsup
 Quizz
24/7/2023
• State the universal gas constant Ro (1)
• State the molecular weight of water (1)
• Calculate the Gas constant for water (1)
• State equation defining Charles’ law (1)
• Define sensible heat (1)
• Convert 101.3 kN/m2 into bar (1)
• Define energy (1)
 Use of vapour tables

Specific
Saturated Specific volume enthalpy Specific
entropy Specific
of liquid hf
temperature ts of vapour Vg of vapour Sgentropy
of liquid Sf

Specific enthalpy
Saturated Latent heat of of vapour hg
pressure vapourisation
ps hfg
Properties
Saturatedof superheat steam
temperature ts

Saturated Temperature
pressure of steam (t)
ps

ps = 0.01 bar v = 149.1

u = 2446
ts = 7°C
h = 2594
s = 9.241
 Interpolation
285°C

2.75 bar
 285°C

2.75 bar
 3072 A C h - 2971 3072 - 2971
tan   ; 
B D 285 - 250 300 - 250
h - 2971 
285 - 250
3072 - 2971 300 - 250

C = (3072 – 2971)
ϴ
h
C

A = (h – 2971)
A

2971 ϴ

B = (285 – 250)
250°C B
285°C 300°C
D = (300 – 250)
D
 285
v - 1.199 
285 - 250 
1.2809 1.316 - 1.199 300 - 250
2785
3041.7 V = 1.2809 m3/kg
7.8368
u - 2731 
285 - 250 
h - 2971 
285 - 250  2809 - 2731 300 - 250
3072 - 2971 300 - 250
U = 2785.6 kJ/kg
h = 3041.7 kJ/kg
s - 7.708 
285 - 250 
7.892 - 7.708 300 - 250
S = 7.8368 kJ/kgK
 0.8517
2784
3039
7.646

h - 2968 285 - 250 v - 0.7965  285 - 250


3070 - 2968 300 - 250 0.8754 - 0.7965 300 - 250
u - 2729 
285 - 250 
2807 - 2729 300 - 250

s - 7.517  
285 - 250
7.702 - 7.5171 300 - 250
 285

1.2809
2785
3041.7
7.8368

v = 0.9590
2.75 bar u = 2784.25
h = 3039.7
s = 7.6937

0.8517
2784
3039
7.646
 285 v - 1.2809 
2.75 - 2.0
0.8517 - 1.2809 3 - 2
1.2809
2785
(2 bar)
3041.7 u - 2785 
2.75 - 2.0 
7.8368
2784 - 2785 3.0 - 2.0
v = 0.9590
2.75 bar u = 2784.25
h = 3039.6
s = 7.6937 h - 3041.7  
2.75 - 2.0
0.8517
2784 3039 - 3041.7  3.0 - 2.0
(3 bar) 3039
7.646
s - 7.8368 
2.75 - 2.0 
7.646 - 7.8368 3.0 - 2.0
 285

1.2809
2785
3041.7
7.8368

v = 0.959
2.75 bar u = 2784.25
h = 3039.6
s = 7.6937

0.8517
2784
3039
7.646
Enthalpy entropy chart
How to read a Mollier diagram -
Example
• A steam turbine has a rated power output of 30000 kW
and a mass flow rate of 24.6 kg/s. The steam exhausts
into a condenser at 0.12 bar absolute and a moisture
content of 18%. Assuming ideal (isentropic) expansion
process determine the:
• specific enthalpy of steam at entry and exit of the
turbine,
• pressure and temperature at inlet to the turbine.

Ans:
h1 = 3380 kJ/kg h2 = 2160 kJ/kg. P1 = 70 bar T1 = 490ºC
Find the volume of one kilogram of steam at
a pressure of 15 bar (1.5 MPa) in each of
the following cases :
(i) when steam is dry saturated,
(ii) when steam is wet having dryness
fraction of 0.9, and
(iii)when steam is superheated, the degree
of superheat being 40ºC.
A closed vessel contains 1.2 m3 of dry
saturated steam at 14 bar (1.4 MPa). What
is the temperature and mass of this steam ?
Determine from steam tables the following:
(i) Enthalpy and volume of 1 kg of steam at
12.7 bar and dryness fraction 0.9, and
(ii) Enthalpy and volume of 1 kg of steam at
12.7 bar and 225ºC. Take the specific
heat at constant pressure for
superheated steam as 2.1 kJ/kg K
 Throttling
• Throttling is a type of expansion where
steam passes through a narrow passage
and expands with a fall of pressure without
doing any external work.
• In this case, there is no interchange of
heat similar to an adiabatic process. The
enthalpy remains constant during this
operation. So Enthalpy before throttling =
Enthalpy after throttling In this process,
steam becomes drier and nearly saturated
steam becomes, superheated.
 throttling process
• Enthalpy before throttling is equal
to the enthalpy after throttling.
 Throttling Process
= H or

H1 H2

Adiabatic Q = 0

No work is done as
Z1 ≈ Z 2 C1 ≈ C 2 the boundary is
fixed; W = 0
 Therefore for a throttling process
H1 = H2
• Enthalpy before throttling is equal
to the enthalpy after throttling.
• Dryness Fraction: Dryness fraction is
defined as the mass of dry steam per kg of
wet steam. It is represented by x.
• Enthalpy

• Specific Volume

• Internal Energy

• Entropy of Water
 Bucket or Barrel Calorimeter

• TheBucket/Barrel Calorimeter consists of

a copper vessel which contains cold water.
The copper vessel is insulated from the
surrounding so as to prevent any heat
transfer from or to the system. The top of
the vessel is also covered by some
detachable insulating medium. A
thermometer is inserted in the water to
record the temperature of it.  
Throttling Calorimeter
Separating and Throttling
Calorimeter
 Bucket or barrel calorimeter
• Steam at a pressure of 5.5 bar is passed
into tank filled with 80 kg of water at 25ºC.
The tank made of copper, weighs 10 kg in
mass and has a specific heat capacity of
0.406 kJ/kg K. After steam has condensed
and mixed with water, its temperature
reaches 40ºC and the mass of the mixture
becomes 82.5 kg. Determine the dryness
fraction of steam.
 Separating calorimeter
• In an experiment, a sample of wet steam
is passed through a separating
calorimeter. At some instant, the mass of
water collected in the separator was
0.83 kg, while the amount of steam
condensed was found to be 2.5 kg.
Determine the dryness fraction of steam
entering the calorimeter.
 Throttling calorimeter
• In a throttling calorimeter, the steam is
admitted at 5.5 bar, it is throttled to
atmospheric pressure and 115ºC.
Determine the dryness fraction of steam.
Assume the specific heat capacity of
superheated steam as 2.1 kJ/kg K
 Combined separating and throttling
• In an experiment, a sample of wet steam
at 5.5 bar is passed through a separating
calorimeter. At some instant, the mass of
water collected in the separator was
0.83 kg. The steam was further passed
through a throttling calorimeter where
pressure and temperature of steam after
throttling were 1.5 bar and 115ºC
respectively. The mass of steam
condensed after throttling was 2.2 kg. Find
the dryness fraction of steam in the main.
• End
• Entropy of Steam
A CASE OF FREE EXPANSION
 FILLING A RESERVOIR FROM A LARGE
SOURCE – A CASE FOR NON STEADY FLOW
 Filling a reservoir from large source

Now dm2 = 0 and dm1 = m2 – m1

The vessel is perfectly insulated so Q = 0 and
no work is done so W = 0

Changes in potential energy are zero Z = 0

Kinetic energy is small
 Non steady flow EQUATION

h1

SO FOR THE CASE OF FILLING A

RESERVOIR FROM A LARGE SOURCE
Non steady flow – a case for a
vessel opened to a large space
 A CASE OF vessel opened to a large space

Now dm1 = 0 since no mass enters the system

The vessel is not perfectly insulated so Q ≠ 0 and
no work is done so W = 0

Changes in potential energy are zero Z = 0

Kinetic energy is small
 For a vessel opened to a large space
• State 2 of the mass leaving is continually
changing, hence impossible to evaluate the term

• An approximation can be made in order to find

the mass of fluid which leaves the vessel as the
pressure drops to a given value
• It can be assumed that the fluid remaining in the
vessel undergoes a reversible adiabatic
expansion
• Initially P1 V P2 V

RT1 RT2
 1
• For an adiabatic process T1  P1  
  
T2  P2 

• Therefore P1 V P2 V
m1  and m 2 
RT1 RT2

Mass of liquid which left the receiver = m1 – m2

How to read a Mollier diagram -
Example
• A steam turbine has a rated power output of 30000 kW
and a mass flow rate of 24.6 kg/s. The steam exhausts
into a condenser at 0.12 bar absolute and a moisture
content of 18%. Assuming ideal (isentropic) expansion
process determine the:
• specific enthalpy of steam at entry and exit of the
turbine,
• pressure and temperature at inlet to the turbine.

Ans:
h1 = 3380 kJ/kg h2 = 2160 kJ/kg. P1 = 70 bar T1 = 490ºC
Find the volume of one kilogram of steam at
a pressure of 15 bar (1.5 MPa) in each of
the following cases :
(i) when steam is dry saturated,
(ii) when steam is wet having dryness
fraction of 0.9, and
(iii)when steam is superheated, the degree
of superheat being 40ºC.
A closed vessel contains 1.2 m3 of dry
saturated steam at 14 bar (1.4 MPa). What
is the temperature and mass of this steam ?
Determine from steam tables the following:
(i) Enthalpy and volume of 1 kg of steam at
12.7 bar and dryness fraction 0.9, and
(ii) Enthalpy and volume of 1 kg of steam at
12.7 bar and 225ºC. Take the specific
heat at constant pressure for
superheated steam as 2.1 kJ/kg K
Enthalpy entropy chart
Throttling
 throttling process
• Enthalpy before throttling is equal
to the enthalpy after throttling.
 Throttling Process
= H or

H1 H2

Adiabatic Q = 0

No work is done as
Z1 ≈ Z 2 C1 ≈ C 2 the boundary is
fixed; W = 0
 Therefore for a throttling process
H1 = H2
• Enthalpy before throttling is equal
to the enthalpy after throttling.
• Dryness Fraction: Dryness fraction is
defined as the mass of dry steam per kg of
wet steam. It is represented by x.
• Enthalpy

• Specific Volume

• Internal Energy
Throttling Calorimeter
Separating and Throttling
Calorimeter
 Dryness fraction of steam
What are the limitations of a “Throttling
Calorimeter?” How are these
limitations overcome in practice.
The throttling calorimeter cannot handle very
wet steam as it will only slightly dry after
throttling while almost dry steam will become
superheated. Therefore, very wet steam is first,
partially dried in the separating calorimeter
before it is admitted to the throttling
calorimeter.
• The instrument panel used for the
determination of the dryness fraction of
steam gave the recordings shown below.
Estimate the dryness fraction of the steam
in the steam main pipe.
The instrument panel used for the determination of the
dryness fraction of steam gave the recordings shown
below. Estimate the dryness fraction of the steam in the

steam main pipe .

2.75 bar
115 °C

2.75 bar

44 mm
755mmHg Water
Condensate

173 ml 875 ml

Barometer
• End