CHAPTER 7

TRANSPORT IN
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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

7.1 Structure of Transport Tissues

7.2 Transport Mechanism

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 TOPIC 7.1 STRUCTURE OF
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TRANSPORT TISSUES
 LEARNING OUTCOMES OF TOPIC
7.1

draw plan diagrams describe the draw and label relate the structure
of transverse distribution of xylem vessel of xylem vessel
sections of stems, xylem and phloem elements, phloem elements, phloem
roots and leaves of in transverse sieve tube elements sieve tube elements
herbaceous sections of stems, and companion and companion
dicotyledonous roots and leaves of cells from cells to their
plants from herbaceous microscope slides, functions
microscope slides dicotyledonous photomicrographs
and plants and electron
photomicrographs micrographs
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 Why does transport need to
occur?
Materials need to be transported between
the root system and the shoot system
• To move substances from where they are absorbed to
where they are needed.

• To move substances from where they are produced to

where they are needed for metabolism.

• To move substances from where they are produced to

where they are needed for metabolism.
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 7.1.1 Plant Transverse
Section
Transport Within A Plant

• Plants have a vascular system which involves a network of vessels

(vascular tissue) running through the leaves, stem and roots. These
three parts are the main organs involved in transport

• The vascular system is comprised of two distinct types:

• Xylem (transports water and mineral ions from the roots to the

rest of the plant)

• Phloem (transports substances from the source (eg. leaf) to the

sink (eg.root))

• The xylem and phloem are arranged together in vascular bundles

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 7.1.1 Plant Transverse
Section

Dicotyledons (dicots) Plants

• Dicotyledons (dicots) plants have:
• Seeds that contain two cotyledons (seed leaves)
• Network of veins
• Leaves that typically have broad blades (leaf surface) and petioles (stalks)
• Tap root with lateral branches
• Herbaceous dicots have a relatively short life cycle (one growing season) and non-woody tissue
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 7.1.1 Plant Transverse
Section

Tissue plan diagrams of a dicotyledonous

leaf, stem and root
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 7.1.1 Plant Transverse
Section
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 7.1.1 Plant Transverse
Section
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 7.1.1 Plant Transverse
Section
High-power Detail Diagrams
A brief description of some of the tissues you will be examining:
1. Epidermis 2. Parenchyma
• This is a continuous layer on the outside of the • It is made up of thin-walled cells used as packing tissue
plant, one cell thick, that provides protection • They may be used for storage of foods like starch, they help to support
• It is covered with a waxy cuticle the plant, preventing wilting, and gas exchange.
• it also has pores called stomata • Parenchyma forms the cortex in roots and stems, and the pith in stems.
• In roots, it may have extensions called root hairs • They contain chloroplasts
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 7.1.1 Plant Transverse
Section
High-power Detail Diagrams
A brief description of some of the tissues you will be examining:
3. Collenchyma 5. Mesophyll
• It a is a modified form of parenchyma with extra • It is made up of specialised parenchyma cells found between the lower
cellulose deposited at the corners of the cells. and upper epidermis of the leaf
• This provides extra strength. • They are specialised for photosynthesis and therefore contain
chloroplasts.
4. Endodermis • They are of two types, palisade mesophyll and spongy mesophyll.
• It, like the epidermis, is one cell thick.
• It surrounds the vascular tissue in stems and roots.
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 7.1.1 Plant Transverse
Section
High-power Detail Diagrams
A brief description of some of the tissues you will be examining:
6. Pericycle 7. Vascular Tissues
• This is a layer of cells, one to several cells thick, just • Xylem
inside the endodermis and next to the vascular tissue. • Phloem
• In stems, it is formed from a tissue called
sclerenchyma. This has dead, lignified cells for extra
strength.
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 7.1.1 Plant Transverse
Section

Step 1: Calculate the 1 eyepiece graticule unit

1 eyepiece graticule unit = 0.1 divided by 40 =

0.0025 mm

Step 2: Convert the answer to measurement with

the unit most suitable for use in light microscopy

0.0025 multiplied by 1000 = 2.5 µm

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 7.1.1 Plant Transverse
Section

Step 1: Calculate the number of divisions between X

and Y

There are 80 divisions between X and Y

Step 2: Calculate the value of each division

As each division is equal to 2.5 µm

Step 3: Calculate the actual width

80 x 2.5 = 200 µm
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 7.1.2 Xylem & Phloem
Distribution
Xylem

• The functions of xylem tissue in a plant are:

• Vascular tissue that carries dissolved minerals and water up the plant

• Structural support

• Food storage

• Xylem tissue is found, along with phloem tissue and other tissues, in vascular bundles

• The location of the vascular bundles is dependent on which organ they are in as the different organs are under different stresses:

• In the roots the vascular bundle is found in the centre and the centre core of this is xylem tissue. This helps the roots withstand the pulling
strains they are subjected to as the plant transports water upwards and grows

• In the stems the vascular bundles are located around the outside and the xylem tissue is found on the inside (closest to the centre of the stem)
to help support the plant

• In the leaves the vascular bundles form the midrib and veins and therefore spread from the centre of the leaf in a parallel line. The xylem
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tissue is found on the upper side of the bundles (closest to the upper epidermis)
 7.1.2 Xylem & Phloem
Distribution

Phloem • The location of the vascular bundles is dependent on which

organ they are in as the different organs are under different
• The function of phloem tissue in a plant is to:
stresses:
• Transport organic compounds, particularly sucrose, • In the roots the vascular bundle is found in the centre
from the source (eg. leaf) to the sink (eg. roots). The and on the edges of the centre core is the phloem tissue
transport of these compounds can
occur up and down the plant • In the stems, the vascular bundles are located around the
outside and the phloem tissue is found on
• Phloem is a complex tissue also made up of various cell
the outside (closest to the epidermis)
types; its bulk is made up of sieve tube elements which are
the main conducting cells and the companion cells • In the leaves, the vascular bundles form the midrib and
veins and therefore spread from the centre of the leaf in a
• Other cell types of phloem tissue also include parenchyma
parallel line. The phloem tissue is found on the lower
for storage and strengthening fibres side of the bundles (closest to the lower epidermis)
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 7.1.2 Xylem & Phloem
Distribution

The distribution of xylem and phloem tissue in the roots, stem

and leaves in a herbaceous dicotyledonous plant
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 7.1.3 Xylem Vessel Elements
Xylem Vessel Elements: Structure & Function

• The functions of xylem tissue in a plant are:

• Vascular tissue that transports dissolved minerals and water around the plant
• Structural support
• Food storage
• Xylem tissue is made up of four cell types that function together:

1. Tracheids (long, narrow tapered cells with pits)

2. Vessel elements (large with thickened cell walls and no end plates when mature)
3. Xylem parenchyma
4. Sclerenchyma cells (fibres and sclereids)
• Most of the xylem tissue is made up of tracheids and vessel elements, which are both types of water-conducting cell
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 7.1.3 Xylem Vessel Elements
Xylem Vessel Elements: Structure & Function

• Characteristics of xylem vessel are:

• they are made from cells joined end to end to form tubes
• the cells are dead
• the walls of the cells are thickened with a hard, strong material called lignin.
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 7.1.3 Xylem Vessel Elements
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 7.1.3 Xylem Vessel Elements

Images of xylem vessel elements, (a) photomicrograph in

longitudinal section (lignin is stained red), (b) scanning electron
micrograph in transverse section and (c) microscope image in
transverse section and drawing (lignin is stained red)
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 7.1.3 Xylem Vessel Elements

Relating structure & function in xylem

vessel elements table
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 7.1.4 Phloem Sieve Tube
Elements

Phloem Sieve Tube Elements & Companion Cells: Structure & Function

• The function of phloem tissue in a plant is to:

• Transport organic compounds (assimilates), particularly sucrose, from the source (eg. leaf) to the sink
(eg. roots). The transport of these compounds can occur up and down the plant
• The organic compounds are dissolved in water to form sap
• Phloem is a complex tissue made up of various cell types; its bulk is made up of sieve tube elements which
are the main conducting cells and companion cells
• Other cell types of phloem tissue also include parenchyma for storage and strengthening fibres
• Mature phloem tissue contains living cells, unlike xylem tissue
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 7.1.4 Phloem Sieve Tube
Elements
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 7.1.4 Phloem Sieve Tube
Elements

Structure of phloem tissue. (a) Microscope slide image and

drawing of a sieve tube element and companion cell in
transverse section (TS), (b) photomicrograph image and
drawing of a sieve tube element and companion cell in
longitudinal section (LS).
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 7.1.4 Phloem Sieve Tube
Elements
Phloem sieve tube elements structure & function table

Sieve tube elements

Sieve tube elements line up end to end
to form a continuous tube
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 7.1.4 Phloem Sieve Tube
Elements
Phloem companion cells structure & function table

Companion cells
• Each sieve tube element has a
companion cell associated with it as
companion cells control the
metabolism of their associated sieve
tube member
• They also play a role in loading and
unloading of sugars into the phloem
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 7.1.4 Phloem Sieve Tube
Elements

Comparison of xylem & phloem tissue table

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 7.2 TRANSPORT
MECHANISM
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state that some mineral ions and
organic compounds can be
transported within plants dissolved
in water
explain how hydrogen bonding of
water molecules is involved with
movement of water in the xylem
by cohesion-tension in
transpiration pull and by adhesion
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to cellulose in cell walls
LEARNING OUTCOMES
describe the transport of water
from the soil to the xylem through
the:
• apoplast pathway, including
reference to lignin and cellulose
• symplast pathway, including
reference to the endodermis,
Casparian strip and suberin
make annotated drawings of
transverse sections of leaves from
xerophytic plants to explain how
they are adapted to reduce water
loss by transpiration
explain that transpiration involves
the evaporation of water from the
internal surfaces of leaves
followed by diffusion of water
vapour to the atmosphere
state that assimilates dissolved in
water, such as sucrose and amino
acids, move from sources to sinks
in phloem sieve tubes
 LEARNING OUTCOMES

 explain how companion cells transfer assimilates to phloem sieve

tubes, with reference to proton pumps and cotransporter proteins
 explain mass flow in phloem sieve tubes down a hydrostatic
pressure gradient from source to sink
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 7.2.1 Water Transport in Plants
• The process starts in the leaves.
• The energy of the Sun causes
water to evaporate from the
leaves, a process called
transpiration.
• This reduces the water potential
in the leaves and sets up a water
potential gradient throughout the
plant.
• Water moves down this gradient
from the soil into the plant – for
example, through its root hairs.
• Water then moves across the
root into the xylem tissue in the
centre.
• Once inside the xylem vessels,
the water moves upwards
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through the root to the stem and

from there into the leaves.
 7.2.2 Transpiration in Plants
Transpiration is the loss of water vapour from
a plant to its environment, by diffusion down a
water potential gradient; most transpiration
takes place through the stomata in the leaves.
• The advantage of transpiration is that:
• It provides a means of cooling the
plant via evaporative cooling
• The transpiration stream is helpful in
the uptake of mineral ions
• The turgor pressure of the cells (due
to the presence of water as it moves
up the plant) provides support to
leaves (enabling an increased surface
area of the leaf blade) and the stem of
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non-woody plants
 7.2.2 Transpiration in Plants
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 7.2.2 Transpiration in Plants
Factors Affecting Transpiration

Wind Speed
Humidity &
Temperature

Light Very Dry

Intensity Condition
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 7.2.2 Transpiration in Plants

The role of the stomata

• Transpiration is mainly controlled by the pairs of guard

cells that surround stomata (plural, stoma is singular)
• Guard cells open the stomata when they are turgid and
close the stomata when they lose water
• When the stomata are open there is a greater rate of
transpiration and of gaseous exchange
• When the stomata close transpiration and gaseous
exchange decrease
• As stomata allow gaseous exchange (CO2 in and O2 out)
they are generally open during the day
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 7.2.3 Xerophytic Plant Leaf Adaptations
• Xerophytes (from the Greek xero for ‘dry’) are plants
that are adapted to dry and arid conditions
• Xerophytes have physiological and structural
(xeromorphic) adaptations to maximise water
conservation
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 7.2.3 Xerophytic Plant Leaf Adaptations
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 7.2.3 Xerophytic Plant Leaf Adaptations

Photomicrograph and annotated drawing showing the

xeromorphic features of a leaf of Ammophilia
arenaria (Marram grass)
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 7.2.4 Water & Mineral Ion Transport in
Plants
Water & Mineral Ion Transport: Pathways & Mechanisms

• Within a plant mineral ions and organic compounds (eg. • The uptake of minerals can be passive or active and occurs

sucrose) are transported by being dissolved in water. by diffusion or active transport respectively
The dissolved mineral ions are transported in
• Plants must take in a constant supply of water and dissolved
the xylem tissue and the dissolved organic
compounds are transported in the phloem tissue minerals to compensate for the continuous loss of water via
transpiration in the leaves, and so that they can photosynthesise
• The plant roots are responsible for the uptake of water and and produce proteins
mineral ions and can have root hairs to increase the surface
• There are two pathways that water (and the dissolved solutes)
area for absorption of the substances
can take to move across the cortex (and molecules can change
• The uptake of water is a passive process and occurs between routes at any time):
by osmosis (the diffusion of water from a higher (less
• Apoplastic
negative) water potential to a lower (more negative)
water potential • Symplastic
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 7.2.4 Water & Mineral Ion Transport in
Plants
Apoplast Pathway

• Most water travels via the apoplastic pathway (when transpiration
rates are high), which is the series of spaces running through
the cellulose cell walls, dead cells, and the hollow tubes of the
xylem
• The water moves by diffusion (as it is not crossing a partially
permeable membrane)
• The water can move from cell wall to cell wall directly or through
the intercellular spaces
• The movement of water through the apoplastic pathway occurs
more rapidly than the symplastic pathway
• When the water reaches the endodermis the presence of a thick,
waterproof, waxy band of suberin within the cell wall blocks the
apoplastic pathway
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• This band is called the Casparian strip and
forms an impassable barrier for the water
• When the water and dissolved minerals reach the
Casparian strip they must take the symplastic
pathway. The presence of this strip is not fully
understood but it is thought that this may help
the plant control which mineral ions reach the
xylem and generate root pressure
• As the plant ages the Casparian strip thickens (as
more suberin is deposited) except in cells called
the passage cells, allowing for further control of
the mineral ions
 7.2.4 Water & Mineral Ion Transport in
Plants
Symplast Pathway

• A smaller amount of water travels via the

symplastic pathway, which is
the cytoplasm and plasmodesmata or
vacuole of the cells
• The water moves by osmosis into the cell
(across the partially permeable cell
surface membrane), possibly into the
vacuole (through the tonoplast by
osmosis) and between cells through the
plasmodesmata
• The movement of water in the symplastic
pathway is slower than the apoplastic
pathway
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 7.2.4 Water & Mineral Ion Transport in
Plants
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 7.2.5 Water & the Transpiration Pull
The movement of water
• Water has unique properties
• it is polar
• hydrogen bonds form between the water molecules
• Water moves from the roots to the leaves because of a difference in the
water potential gradient between the top and bottom of the plant. This
gradient is created because of different events occurring within the plant
and due to the properties of water
• In the leaves, water evaporates from the mesophyll cells resulting in water
(and any dissolved solutes) being pulled from the xylem vessels
(transpiration pull) into the mesophyll cells
• The water that is pulled into the mesophyll cells moves across them
passively (either via the apoplastic – diffusion or symplastic
– osmosis, pathways) lowering the hydrostatic pressure within the xylem
vessels and creating a tension on these vessels
• Xylem vessels have lignified walls to prevent them from collapsing due to
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the pressure differences being created from the mass flow (all the water
molecules and any dissolved solutes move together) of water upwards
• The mass flow is helped by the polar nature of
water and the hydrogen bonds (H-bonds) that
form between water molecules which results
in cohesion between water molecules
and adhesion between the cellulose in the
cell walls and the water molecules
• So due to the evaporation of water from the
mesophyll cells in the leaves a tension is
created in the xylem tissue which is
transmitted all the way down the plant
because of the cohesiveness of water
molecules. The cohesive force results in a
continuous column of water with high tensile
strength (it is unlikely to break) and the
adhesive force stops the water column from
pulling away from the walls of the xylem
vessels so water is pulled up the xylem tissue
from the roots to replace what was lost in the
leaves. This mechanism is called
the cohesion-tension theory
 7.2.5 Water & the Transpiration Pull

The transpiration stream

• The pathway of the water from the soil through the roots up the xylem tissue to the leaves is
the transpiration stream
• Plants aid the movement of water upwards by raising the water pressure in the roots (root pressure)
• This is raised by actively secreting solutes (eg. mineral ions) into the xylem vessels in the root
which lowers the water potential within the xylem
• This results in water from the surrounding cells being drawn into the xylem (by osmosis) thus
increasing the water pressure (root pressure)
• Root pressure helps move water into the xylem vessels in the roots however the volume moved does
not contribute greatly to the mass flow of water to the leaves in the transpiration stream
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 7.2.5 Water & the Transpiration Pull
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The transpiration stream – the mass flow of water from the roots to the leaves. This is possible due to the cohesion-tension theory
 TOPIC 7.3 TRANSPORT IN THE
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PHLOEM OF PLANTS
 7.3 Transport in The Phloem of Plants

In the end of this topic, you should able to:

• Relate the structure of phloem to its function
• Explain that assimilates dissolved in water, such as sucrose and amino acids, move through phloem
sieve tubes from source to sink
• Explain mass flow in the phloem sieve tubes down the hydrostatic pressure gradient from source to
sink
• Explain how companion cells transfer assimilates to phloem sieve tubes.
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 7.3 Transport in The Phloem of Plants
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 7.3 Transport in The Phloem of Plants

The Contents of Phloem Sieve Tubes

Which
o f th
in Table e substances l
isted
(have b 7.3 are assimi
een syn la
thesised tes
plant)? by the
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 7.3 Transport in The Phloem of Plants
How Translocation Occurs in Sieve Tubes
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 7.3 Transport in The Phloem of Plants

How Translocation Occurs in Sieve Tubes

Write down your ideas here

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 7.3 Transport in The Phloem of Plants
• The source of the assimilates could be:
• Translocation within phloem tissue can be
• Green leaves and green stem (photosynthesis produces
defined as the transport of assimilates
glucose which is transported as sucrose, as sucrose has
from source to sink and requires the input less of an osmotic effect than glucose)
of metabolic energy (ATP) • Storage organs eg. tubers and tap roots (unloading their
stored substances at the beginning of a growth period)
• The liquid that is being transported (found
• Food stores in seeds (which are germinating)
within phloem sieve tubes) is
• The sinks (where the assimilates are required) could be:
called phloem sap
• Meristems (apical or lateral) that are actively dividing
• This phloem sap consists not only of sugars • Roots that are growing and / or actively absorbing
(mainly sucrose) but also of water and mineral ions

other dissolved substances such as amino • Any part of the plant where the assimilates are being
stored (eg. developing seeds, fruits or storage organs)
acids, hormones and minerals (Table 7.3)
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 7.3 Transport in The Phloem of Plants
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 7.3 Transport in The Phloem of Plants
1. Sucrose produced by photosynthesis is actively pumped into
the phloem vessels by the companion cells.
Mass flow
2. This decreases the water potential in the leaf phloem, so water
diffuses from the neighbouring xylem vessels by osmosis.
3. This is increases the hydrostatic pressure in the phloem, so
water and dissolved solutes are forced downwards to relieve
the pressure. This is mass flow: the flow of water together with
its dissolved solutes due to a force.
4. In the roots the solutes are removed from the phloem by active
transport into the cells of the root.
5. At the same time, ions are being pumped into the xylem from
the soil by active transport, reducing the water potential in the
xylem.
6. The xylem now has a lower water potential than the phloem, so
water diffuses by osmosis from the phloem to the xylem.
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7. Water and its dissolved ions are pulled up the xylem by tension
from the leaves. This is also mass flow.
 7.3 Transport in The Phloem of Plants
Loading of Assimilates (eg. sucrose)
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 7.3 Transport in The Phloem of Plants
Loading of Assimilates (eg. sucrose)
• The pathway that sucrose molecules use to travel to the sieve tubes
is not fully understood yet. The molecules may move by the:
• symplastic pathway (through the cytoplasm and
plasmodesmata) which is a passive process as the sucrose
molecules move by diffusion
• apoplastic pathway (through the cell walls) which is an active
process
• If the sucrose molecules are taking the apoplastic pathway then
modified companion cells (called transfer cells) pump hydrogen
ions out of the cytoplasm via a proton pump and into their cell
walls. This is an active process and therefore requires ATP as an
energy source
• The large concentration of hydrogen ions in the cell wall of the
companion cell results in the hydrogen ions moving down the
concentration gradient back to the cytoplasm of the companion cell
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• The hydrogen ions move through a cotransporter
protein. While transporting the hydrogen ions this
protein also carries sucrose molecules into the
companion cell against the concentration gradient
for sucrose
• The sucrose molecules then move into the sieve
tubes via the plasmodesmata from the companion
cells
• Companion cells have infoldings in their cell surface
membrane to increase the available surface area for
the active transport of solutes and many
mitochondria to provide the energy for the proton
pump
• This mechanism permits some plants to build up the
sucrose in the phloem to up to three times the
concentration of that in the mesophyll
 7.2.7 The Sucrose Loading Mechanism

Then…what about unloading

of assimilates?
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 7.2.7 The Sucrose Loading Mechanism

Unloading of Assimilates (eg. sucrose)

• The unloading of the assimilates (eg. sucrose) occurs at the sinks
• Scientists believe that the unloading of sucrose is similar to the loading of
sucrose, with the sucrose being actively transported out of the companion cells
and then moving out of the phloem tissue via apoplastic or symplastic pathways
• To maintain a concentration gradient in the sink tissue, sucrose is converted
into other molecules. This is a metabolic reaction so requires enzymes (eg.
invertase which hydrolyses sucrose into glucose and fructose)
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 THANK YOU
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