Learning

outcomes :
• describe the kinetic concept of
the liquid state
• describe the melting of solid to
liquid, vaporisation and vapour
pressure using simple kinetic
theory
• define the boiling point and
freezing point of liquids.
 Liquids
Kinetic concept of the liquid states :
• Liquids have fixed volume but no fixed shape.
• Intermolecular forces of intermediate strength tie the
particles into small clusters with little empty space in
between. Liquid can hardly be compressed.
• Particles are in constant random motion.
 Changes of States
Liquid

1
3

𝑽𝒂
𝒑𝒐
𝑪𝒐

𝒓𝒊
𝒔𝒂
𝒏𝒅

𝒕 𝒊𝒐
𝒆𝒏
2

𝒔𝒂

𝒏
𝒕𝒊𝒐
4

𝒏
5
Solid Gas

6
 Melting
• When heated, solid particles
gain kinetic energy & vibrate
faster.
• B : When energy acquired is
sufficient to overcome forces of
attraction between molecules,
melting occurs.
• BC : average kinetic energy
of particles does not change
(constant temperature).
Heat absorbed is used to
overcome the intermolecular
attractive forces between
particles. Heat energy is
converted into potential energy
. for changing of position of
particles.
• C : complete melting occurs.
 Vaporisation
Evaporation
takes place
until no liquid
is left.

• If evaporation takes place in a closed vessel, concentration of

vapour in the vessel will increase, exerting a pressure on the wall of
the vessel. This is called the vapour pressure of a liquid.

• Some vapour particles will re-enter the liquid through condensation.

• When the rate of evaporation equals that the rate of condensation, a
dynamic equilibrium is established. At this stage, the concentration
of vapour is at its maximum (saturated vapour pressure).
• Vapour pressure increases with temperature.
• When vapour pressure equals the external pressure (atmospheric
pressure), boiling occurs.
 Volatility, Vapour pressure & Temperature
• A liquid that evaporates readily is said to be volatile.
• Volatile liquids has a higher saturated vapour pressure than any
other liquids at any given temperature → intermolecular forces
between particles are weak.

Ether , ethanol , water

Volatility decreases

Ether , ethanol , water

Strength of intermolecular
forces increases

• Hence, volatile liquid has a lower boiling point.

𝑄𝑢𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 :
The vapour pressure curves of two liquids, P and Q are shown below.

Which of the following statements is correct?

A At Q exists as a solid.
B The heat of vapourisation of P is lower than that of Q.
C At any pressure, the bp of liquid P is higher than that of Q.
D Under the same conditions, the molecules in Q have a higher
kinetic energy than the molecules in P.
STPM 2022 Q7
Which statement is not true about liquid?
A The conversion of liquid to vapour is an endothermic
process.
B Liquid boils when vapour pressure equals to external
pressure at 1 atm.
C The particles of liquid achieve a fixed orderly
arrangement when in frozen state.
D The vapour pressure of liquid increases when its
surface area increases at constant temperature.
Learning outcomes :
• describe qualitatively the lattice
structure of a crystalline solid
which is:
(a) ionic, as in sodium chloride,
(b) simple molecular, as in iodine,
(c) giant molecular, as in graphite,
diamond and silicon(IV) oxide,
(d) metallic, as in copper;
• describe the allotropes of carbon
(graphite, diamond and
fullerenes), and their uses.
 Solids
Crystalline Amorphous
• Particles are held rigidly by • Particles are arranged
strong attractive force in an randomly with no order.
ordered network called
lattice structure.

• Ice, diamond, NaCl • Glass, rubber, plastics

 Giant
Ionic

Giant Crystalline Giant

Metallic solids covalent

Simple
molecular
The basic repeating unit of a crystalline solid is known
as unit cell.

𝐾𝐶𝑙, 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 𝐴𝑙𝑘𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝐶𝑢 , 𝐼 2 , 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙

 Simple Cubic Structure

Particles occupy
corners of cube

Number of particles
per cubic cell

Coordination number
 Body-centered Cubic Structure
Particles occupy
corners & center of
cube

Number of particles
per cubic cell

Coordination number
 Face-centered Cubic Structure

Particles occupy
corners & faces of cube

Number of particles
per cubic cell

Coordination number
 Giant Ionic Structure (NaCl)
• Each ion is bonded to six ions,
and each ions is bonded to six
ions.
Ionic
• Coordination number = 6. bond

• All ions are held rigidly by strong

ionic bonds in fixed positions
high mp & does not conduct
electricity in solid state.
• NaCl form ion-dipole
attractive force with water.
 Simple Molecular Structure (iodine)
• The lattice particles in simple molecular solids are small
molecules, held by weak van der Waals forces or hydrogen
bonds in their lattice structure.
Van der
Waals forces
• In iodine, van der Waals forces 𝐼2
exist between molecules low mp.
• Does not dissolve in water as
it is non-polar (unable to form
hydrogen bonds with water).
• Does not conduct electricity
as there is no delocalised electrons.
• Coordination number = 12
 Giant Covalent Structure
(Diamond, Graphite & Silica)
• All atoms are held by strong covalent bonds, forming
an extensive 3D network with high mp.
Covalent
bond
𝑆𝑖
Covalent
𝑂 Covalent
bond
bond

van der
Waal
Forces

• All C atoms are • All C atoms are • Each Si atom is

hybridised (tetrahedral) hybridised. bonded to 4 oxygen
• No free electrons • Unhybridised p orbitals atoms in a tetrahedral
overlap sideways to form manner, while each O
extensive delocalised atom is bonded to 2
electrons. silicon atoms.
 Giant Metallic Structures (Cu)
• Atoms are packed closely together and are held by strong
metallic bonds high density & high mp. Metallic
bond
• Valence electrons are delocalised
throughout the metal crystal
good conductor of heat & electricity.
• In solid Cu, each Cu atom is
surrounded by 12 atoms. Hence,
the coordination number of Cu = 12.

Face centred cubic structure

STPM 2017 Q6
Which statement is true about solid iodine which sublimes
easily at room temperature?
A Iodine is a non-polar molecule
B Iodine has weak covalent bond
C Iodine has weak intermolecular forces
D Iodine has low vapour pressure
STPM 2023 Q7
A lattice structure is given below.

Which substance has the above lattice structure?

A Copper
B Diamond
C Sodium chloride
D Silicon(IV) oxide
STPM 2016 Q16(b)
Elements and are diatomic molecules. is a liquid while is a solid at
standard conditions. The bond lengths and melting points of these
molecules are shown in the table below.
Molecule
Bond length
Melting point
Describe the physical states and . [3]
Answer
is a solid at temperature below and a liquid above .
is a solid at temperature below and a liquid above .
Both and are simple covalent molecules with simple molecular
structure and weak van der Waals forces between molecules. Hence,
they have relatively low mp.
Due to bigger molecular size of , the intermolecular van der Waals
forces are stronger, hence, it has higher mp than .
MPM Report
In part (b), many candidates did not notice that both and are
simple covalent molecules from the molecular formulae. Thus,
they could not link weak intermolecular van der Waals forces and
the molecular size. Some candidates described the physical
states of and by repeating the statement that is stated in the
question that is a liquid and is a solid at standard conditions.
Candidates were required to be more specific based on the
given information. For example, is a solid below –7.2 °C and a
liquid or vapour state is above –7.2 °C. would be a solid below
113.8 °C and a liquid state would be above 113.8 °C. From the
bond length of and , it can be deduced that is a bigger molecule
than resulting in stronger intermolecular van der Waals forces
between molecules that explains the higher melting point.
STPM 2016 Q16(a)(i)
Iodine molecules crystallize in the face-centred cubic structure.
Draw the lattice structure of solid iodine. [3]
Answer
𝐼2
Iodine labelled [1]
Iodine molecules at 8 corners [1]
Iodine on 6 faces [1]

MPM Report
In part (a)(i), most of candidates were able to draw the lattice structure
of solid iodine, that is face-centred cubic structure. Candidates failed to
label the points on the face-centred cubic structure as or .
STPM 2017 Q19(c)
There are two types of solid, namely crystalline and amorphous
solids. and are examples of crystalline solids while glass is an
example of amorphous solid.
(i) Draw the unit cell of iodine and explain why it is a crystalline
solid under room condition. [2]
(ii) Arrange the mp of and in ascending order. Explain your
answer. [4]
Answer
(i) 𝐼 2/𝐼 − 𝐼

Molecules are orderly arranged in the faced-centred cubic

structure.
Answer
(ii) →
𝑀𝑝 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠
has simple molecular structure with weak van der Waals forces
between molecules.
has giant ionic structure with strong ionic bonds between and
ions.
has giant covalent structure with strong covalent bond between
and atoms.
MPM Report
In part (c)(i), most of the candidates were unable to draw the cell
unit of iodine as face-centred cubic. The candidates also did not
label the particle as , but instead they labelled it as iodine. They
were unable to explain that crystalline iodine was due to the
orderly arrangement of its molecules. Many candidates wrote
fixed positions, fixed arrangement, closely packed, or lattice
structure.
MPM Report
In part (c)(ii), many candidates were able to arrange the melting
points in ascending order: , and explain the order as simple
molecule for , ionic compound for and giant covalent molecule
for . Some candidates did not understand the term ascending
order, and experienced difficulties in differentiating the simple
covalent molecules, ionic compounds and giant covalent
structures. A few candidates made mistakes, such as using the
term bone instead of bond, and on the concept of bonding in
when they stated that had a giant covalent bond when it should
be had a giant covalent structure. They also explained that had
the lowest melting point due to weak van der Waals forces rather
than a simple molecule. Many candidates wrote NaCl has the
highest melting point.
STPM 2019 Q19(a)
Crystalline solids are classified based on the types of bonding.
State four types of crystalline solids and their types of bonding.
[8]
Answer
Metallic solid exists as giant metallic structure held by strong
metallic bonds between metal cations and delocalised electrons.

Ionic solid exists as giant ionic structure held by strong ionic

bonds between cations and anions.
Giant covalent solid exists as giant covalent structure held by
strong covalent bonds between atoms.
Simple molecular solid exists as simple molecular structure held
by weak intermolecular van der Waals force.
MPM report
In part (a), many candidates were unable to state crystalline
solids and their types of bonding involved. Instead of giving the
four types of crystalline solids, the candidates gave specific
examples of solid substances and stated the types of bonds
present in the solid. Most candidates tried to explain the bonding
by giving the example of all the allotropes of carbon (diamond,
graphite, fullerene), silicon or compounds (iodine and sodium
chloride). Thus, they did not answer the question. Some
candidates were also unable to spell the van der Waals forces
correctly and also stated crystalline solids as ionic molecule,
metallic compound, simple molecule and giant molecule.
 Allotropes
• Allotropes are different forms of the same element in
the same physical state.
• Diamond, graphite & fullerenes are 3 allotropes of
carbon.

Diamond Graphite Fullerene

 Diamond
Properties Explanation

Hard All carbon atoms are covalently bonded in a 3D giant

structure.
Uses : abrasives, drills
Insulator All the 4 valence electrons are used in covalent bonding.
No free mobile electrons.
High mp Strong covalent bond network.
Sparkling High reflective index.
Uses : jewelry
 Graphite
Properties Explanation

Covalent bond

Van der Waals

forces

Soft & Weak van der Waals between layers allow the layers to
slippery slide easily.
Uses : lubricant
Electrical Delocalised p electrons are free to move.
conductor Uses : electrodes
High mp Strong covalent bonds holding the C atoms within the
layers.
Insoluble in Strong covalent bond network.
water
 Fullerene
Properties Explanation

Covalent bond
(sp2 hybrid)

Spherical shape. Each C atom is covalently bonded to 3 other C

atoms () to form hexagonal & pentagonal rings .
Soft & slippery Weak van der Waals between molecules.
Low mp Uses : lubricant
Electrical Delocalised p electrons “in the molecule” (cannot jump
conductor between different molecules) does not conduct electricity.
Superconductor when doped with alkali metals.
Soluble in Simple molecular structure, .
organic solvent
Insoluble in water Strong covalent bond network.
STPM 2021 Q7
Which property of graphite does not correspond correctly to its uses?
Property Uses
A Inert Electrode
B Slippery Lubricant
C Good electrical conductor Neutron moderator in nuclear reactors
D High melting point Furnace lining
STPM 2020 Q5
Why is graphite suitable to used as a lubricant?
A Has delocalized e between the graphite layers
B Has van der Waals forces between the graphite layers
C Has covalent bonds between atoms in the graphite
layers
D Has a hexagonal arrangement of atoms in the graphite
layers.
STPM 2018 Q8
Fullerene is an allotrope of carbon. Which statement is true
about the molecule?
[RMM of fullerene is 720]
A Its molecule consists of 60 hybridised carbon atom
B Its molecule has pentagonal and hexagonal faces
C It is a better electrical conductor than graphite
D It is completely burnt to and
STPM 2013 Q8
Fullerene, C60, is one of carbon allotrope found in soot.
Which statement about fullerene is true?
A Its carbon atom has hybrid orbitals.
B Its molecule has delocalized electrons.
C Its bond angle is smaller than that of graphite.
D Its density is higher than that of diamond.
STPM 2008
In plating chromium onto plastic, the cathode is a plastic
object coated with graphite. The graphite is used to
A enable oxidation to occur & chromium to be
deposited
B form an alloy with chromium so as to strengthen the
coating
C enable the plastic object to act as an electrical
conductor
D make the surface of the plastic object coarse so that
chromium is adsorbed on it.
 Learning outcomes :
• Sketch the phase diagram for water
and carbon dioxide, and explain the
anomalous behaviour of water;
• Explain phase diagrams as graphical
plots of experimentally determined
results;
• Interpret phase diagrams as curves
4.4 describing the conditions of
Phase equilibrium between phases and as
regions representing single phases;
diagrams • Predict how a phase may change
with changes in temperature and
pressure;
• Discuss vaporisation, boiling,
sublimation, freezing, melting, triple
and critical points of H2O and CO2;
• Explain qualitatively the effect of a
non-volatile solute on the vapour
pressure of a solvent, and hence, on
its melting point and boiling point
(colligative properties);
• State the uses of dry ice.
 Phase Diagram
• A substance can exist as a solid, liquid or gas depending on
temperature & pressure.
• Phase diagram shows the interconversion between the three
phases as a function of temperature & pressure.
Phase transition curves
(two phases exist in eqm) Max temp by which
a gas cannot be liquefied
by further increase in
pressure.

Substance beyond this

point is called a
supercritical fluid
(indistinguishable
between liquid or gas)

Temp & Pressure

where all the 3 phases
coexist in eqm.
 𝐶𝑂 2 𝐻2 𝑂

𝐴𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 : 𝐼𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑒 𝑡h𝑎𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

 Phase Diagram
Carbon dioxide
• Melting curve shows a
positive gradient.

• Melting of dry ice is

accompanied by an increase
in the volume.
• An increase in pressure favors
the reversible reaction.
• Mp of dry ice increases with
pressure.
Uses of dry ice :
• Refrigerant
• Fog in entertainment industry
• Cloud seeding to induce
rainfall.
 Phase Diagram
Water
• Melting curve shows a
negative gradient.

• Melting of ice is accompanied

by an decrease in the
volume.
• An increase in pressure favors
the forward reaction.
• Mp of ice decreases with
pressure.

• Sublimation temperature
increases with pressure.
• Boiling point of water
Hexagonal lattice
increases with pressure. structure of ice
Q uestion 1
Question 2

(i) Solid
(ii) Solid to gas (sublimation)
Question 3
Pressure/atm

Liquid
Solid

Gas

mp bp (c) Solid is denser than liquid .

Melting curve shows positive gradient. Mp increases
with increasing pressure.
Increase in P favours the freezing process (reverse
reaction).
Melting of X is accompanied by an increase in
volume.
(d) Ice is less dense than water. Melting curve shows negative gradient.
(e) melts when heated at room conditions. This is because atm pressure is above
triple point.
Question 4
Question 5
Question 6
Instead, a supercritical fluid is formed.
STPM 2022 Q8
The pressure and temperature of a pure substance, X, is shown in
the phase diagram below.

Which statement is true about the phase diagram?

A X is solid at standard temperature and pressure.
B X is less dense in solid state than in liquid state.
C The melting point of X increases when the pressure decreases.
D The required minimum pressure to liquefy vapour X is 200 kPa.
STPM 2021 Q8
A phase diagram of is shown below.

Which is true about the above phase diagram?

A An increase in pressure will decrease the freezing point of
B An increase in pressure will decrease the boiling point of
C Ice sublimes at a pressure higher than 611 Pa
D exists as liquid at 611 Pa and 298 K
STPM 2020 Q8
A solid sublimes when it is heated in an open container at room
conditions. Which statement is not true about the solid?
A The solid is iodine
B The temperature of the solid at triple point is above room
temperature
C The pressure of the solid at triple point is above 1 atm
D The melting point of the solid is below its triple point
STPM 2019 Q9
A phase diagram of water is shown below.

Which is not true about the phase diagram above?

A At , water exists as liquid and vapour
B Below 0.006 atm, ice sublimes when the temperature increases
C The freezing point of water decreases when the pressure increases
D At 0.006 atm, the boiling and melting points of water are 273 K
STPM 2017 Q8
A phase diagram for carbon dioxide is shown below.

Which statement explains the use of solid carbon dioxide to produce fog
for special effects in concerts?
A Carbon dioxide is a white gas
B Solid carbon dioxide is denser than liquid carbon dioxide
C Solid carbon dioxide sublimes under ambient conditions
D Liquid carbon dioxide and carbon dioxide gas are in equilibrium at
room temperature
STPM 2016 Q8
Which phase diagram is correct for water?
STPM 2015 Q11
A phase diagram of substance X is shown below.

What could be deduced from the phase diagram?

A The melting point of X decreases when the pressure increases.
B The density of solid X is higher than its liquid
C X exists as a gas at standard temperature and pressure
D X condenses when pressure increases at 300
STPM 2013 Q7
The phase diagram of substance X is given below.

Which statement about the above phase diagram is true?

A Substance X exists as a solid at stp
B Solid X sublimes at temperature below its triple point
C The freezing point of liquid X decreases as pressure increases
D Substance X exists as a supercritical fluid at temperature above
STPM 2013 Q20
Carbon dioxide is a gas at and 1.00 atm. Its triple point is at and 5.11
atm, and its critical point is at and 73.0 atm.
(a) Sketch and label the phase diagram for carbon dioxide. [3]
(b) Carbon dioxide gas can be liquefied under standard conditions.
Using the kinetic theory of gases, explain the liquefaction of
gaseous carbon dioxide at by increasing the pressure. [4]
Answer
(a)

Correct shape (2 curves & 1 line) [1]

Label phase [1]
Label axes/unit [1]
(b) According to the kinetic theory, gas particles are far apart with
negligible intermolecular forces of attraction.
As pressure increases, molecules are pushed closer to each
other. Intermolecular forces of attraction act on molecules. Gas
molecules bind together in clusters resulting in condensation
(liquefaction).

MPM report
In part (a), most candidates were able to sketch the phase diagram of
CO2 satisfactorily. Common errors included not labeling the axes;
reversing the axes, drawing the solid-liquid line with a negative gradient
and not labelling the three phases. Most candidates drew a curve
between the solid and liquid phases instead of a straight line.
In part (b), most candidates misunderstood the collision theory with the
kinetic theory. Hence, their explanation was out of point and they lost
marks. However, some candidates were able to write that the liquid
CO2 is formed by condensation process of gaseous CO2.
STPM 2016 Q16(a)(ii)
Iodine sublimes when heated at 1 atm. Sketch the phase diagram
showing the sublimation of iodine. [2]
Answer

Correct axes, shape & labelled

region [1]
Arrow from solid to gas [1]

*No abbreviations for regions.

MPM Report
In part (a)(ii), many candidates were able to draw the phase
diagram of iodine correctly and label the three phases, solid,
liquid and vapour. The candidates were able to show the
sublimation of iodine at 1 atm by drawing the line but some of
them drew the line for sublimation from solid area to the line
between solid and vapour areas but did not cross to the vapour
area. Some of the candidates did not mark 1 atm at the y-axis.
The candidates should draw the line from y-axis that mark 1 atm
to the vapour area as shown in the sample of answer below.
STPM 2018 Q17
(c) Sketch and label the phase diagram of water. [2]
(d) State one anomalous behaviour of water and give your reason. [2]
Answer
(c)

Correct shape (2 curves & 1

line) [1]
Label phase [1]
Label axes/unit [1]

(d) Ice is less dense than water /ice has a larger volume than water. [1]
Ice has open hexagonal structure. [1]
MPM report
In part (c), most of the candidates were able to sketch and to label the
phase diagram of water. Some of them drew the solid-vapour boundary
as a straight line.
In part (d), most of the candidates stated correctly that ice is less dense
than water, and explained the answer as due to the open structure or
large volume of ice. But, some of them stated incorrectly that bonding
in ice is van der Waals forces and they also stated that the anomalous
behaviour of water in terms of melting and boiling points.
Explain the formation of white fog as carbon dioxide is
released from the fire extinguishers.

Under high pressure, carbon dioxide gas would have

liquefied in the fire extinguisher.

When released, liquid carbon dioxide absorbs heat from

the surrounding & vapourised, causes a drop in the
temperature of the surrounding.

As a result, water vapour in the air condenses to form

white fog.
• Colligative properties of solutions are properties that depend upon
the concentration of solute molecules or ions, but not upon the
identity of the solute. This includes freezing point depression, boiling
point elevation, vapor pressure lowering.

• The higher the concentration of solute, the greater the deviation in

melting, freezing & boiling points.
 Effect of non-volatile solute on boiling &
freezing points of solvent
• Boiling takes place when vapour pressure of the liquid equals the
external atmospheric pressure.
• When a non-volatile solute is added to a solvent, part of the
surface of the solution is now occupied by molecules of the solute.
• Fewer water molecules can escape to form vapour. Vapour pressure
of solution is lowered.

Pure solvent Salt solution

• As vapour pressure of solution is lowered, a higher
temperature is needed to raise the vapour pressure of
solution to equal the external pressure.
• Hence, bp increases (elevation of bp)

• Presence of foreign molecules makes the orderly

arrangement more difficult to achieve.
• Temperature has to be lowered further for freezing to
occur.
• Thus, freezing point is depressed (depression of
freezing point)
Question
Consider the following :

Assuming complete dissociation of soluble salts, which

solution(s) would have the same boiling point as ?

Answer
Question
Explain the following :
0.25 mole of ethanoic acid depresses the freezing point
of 1 kg of benzene half as much as 0.25 mole of
naphthalene.

Answer
Ethanoic acid undergoes dimerisation in benzene
STPM 2020 Q19(b)
An aqueous solution is formed when sodium chloride is dissolved in
water. Describe the differences in vapour pressure, freezing point and
boiling point of water and the solution using phase diagrams. [7]
Answer
MPM report
In part (b), many candidates were unable to sketch the phase
diagram. Most candidates sketched the diagram separately
instead of comparing the curves on a single diagram. The
common mistakes made by the candidates are as follows:
• Did not label the solid, liquid and gas phases in the phase
diagram
• Did not label the curves correctly
• Labelled diagram phases as s, l and g
• Did not draw the freezing point line as a straight line
• Did not compare water and NaCl solution in one phase
diagram but sketched two separate diagrams
• Drew the sublimation curve starting from the origin
Some candidates were able to explain the differences in vapour
pressure, freezing point and boiling point between the solution
and water correctly.