Industrial waste treatment

Unit I
 Introduction
• Industrial wastewater results from industrial processing
operations which include liquid, solid and gases. From the
stand point of characteristics of waste, various industries
can be divided into following four groups;
• 1. Food processing industries like sugar, dairy,
Fermentation and canning
• 2. Industries of mineral products like coal, coke, oil,
petroleum and steel
• 3. Atomic power and radioactive waste producing industries
• 4. Industries processing chemicals like chemical
manufacturing, metal finishing, paper & pulp, rubber, textiles
etc
• 5. Miscellaneous industries.
Industrial wastewater treatment
• Industrial wastes are varied and complex,
affects normal life of stream or normal
functioning of treatment plant in some way
or the other.
• If they are discharged directly into the
receiving water, it may result in foul
smelling, discoloring and killing of aquatic
life apart from making water unfit for other
purposes.
 Industrial wastewater treatment
• Industrial wastewater needs proper
consideration from the point of view of
• 1. Public: Industrial waste causes pollution to
the streams making it unfit for domestic,
recreational and commercial purposes,
deteriote sewer and treatment plants and
increase the cost of treatment.
• 2. Manufacturer: Waste is a liability and to
dispose of with least cost
• 3. Environmental Engineer: To reduce the
volume and polluting strength of wastes
 Industrial wastewater treatment
• Three alternatives for disposal of industrial
wastes are:
• 1. Direct disposal into the receiving water
without any treatment
• 2. Disposal into municipal sewers for
combined treatment
• 3. Separate treatment of industrial waste
before their disposal into receiving water or
on land
Characteristics of industrial wastewater
• Although the characteristics of industrial
wastewater vary from industry to industry, yet
industrial effluents as a group vary from normal
sewage obtained by residential and commercial
establishments.
• They have either a too high proportion of
suspended solids, dissolved organic and inorganic
solids, BOD, alkalinity and acidity.
• The pollutants in the industrial wastewater include
the impurities in raw materials, process chemicals,
final products and process byproducts.
Pollutants in industrial wastewater and their
effects
• Following are the various types of pollutants that
may be present in industrial wastewater.
• 1. Organic substance: These deplete dissolved
oxygen of streams and impose great load on
treatment units.
• 2. Inorganic substance: These include carbonates,
chlorides, nitrogen etc. They are undesirable for
micro-organisms and plants of receiving water
body. They render the water unfit for further use.
• 3. Acid and alkalies: These generally affect the
aquatic life of the receiving water. They also cause
serious problems in the operation of treatment
plants.
Pollutants in industrial wastewater and their
effects….
• 4. Toxic substances: These include cyanide,
sulphide, acetylene, alcohol due to which
flora and fauna of the receiving water is
greatly affected. They can cause problems in
the treatment units apart from endangering
the life of workers.
• 5. Color: They impart objectionable color in
the receiving water.
• 6. Oil: These hinder the self purification of
streams
 Population equivalent

• The wastewater carried by a sewer consists mainly of

domestic sewage and the industrial wastewater.
• Since the contribution of solids to swage should be nearly
constant on a per capita basis, the BOD contribution
(expressed in grams per person per day) should also be
constant.
• Generally, BOD contribution per capita per day may be
taken as 80 g/day (or 0.08 kg/day).
• Industrial wastewaters are generally compared with per
capita domestic sewage through the concept of population
equivalent (PE) using per capita BOD value as the basis.
 Population equivalent

• PE = Total BOD5 of the industrial wastewater (kg/day)

BOD5 value per capita/day
• For example, if the total BOD5 of an industrial wastewater
is 800 kg/day and BOD5 value is 0.08 kg/capita/day, then
PE = (800/0.08) = 10000.
• Similarly, if at the point of measurement, we have a
combined wastewater consisting of domestic sewage as
well as industrial wastewater, the population equivalent of
the combined sewer wastewater can be found by dividing
BOD5 of the combined wastewater by the per capita /day
BOD value.
 Population equivalent

Generally, the population equivalent is used to

indicate the strength of industrial wastewater
required for
• estimating the treatment required at the
common treatment plant ( municipal treatment
plant)
• charging appropriate levy on the industries to
meet the proportionate cost of treating waste
in the municipal treatment plant.
Difference between industrial waste and municipal waste

Sl. Industrial waste Municipal waste

No
1 Industries operating schedule is Wastewater flow
varying. Some day it will be closed from a municipality
and on some day it will dump two or will have definite
three time normal wastes. There pattern of flow on
may be no wastewater flow from an each day.
industry during week ends. Municipality waste
must and usually
operate 24 hours a
day and 7 days a
week.
 Difference between industrial waste and municipal
waste

Sl. Industrial waste Municipal waste

No

2 Industry views industrial A municipality

wastewater treatment system views
as an imposed necessity, wastewater
which it adopts, when it is treatment as a
made mandatory service to the
community
 Difference between industrial waste and municipal
waste

Sl. Industrial waste Municipal waste

No
3 The strength of industrial The strength and
wastewater run from 0 to volume of
100000 mg/l. Industrial municipal
wastewater volume varies and sewage on the
in normal course of operation other hand are
is unpredictable well established
and occurs with
in the narrow
limits of 100 to
1000 mg/l
 Difference between industrial waste and municipal
waste

Sl. Industrial waste Municipal waste

No
4 Deoxygenating rate of Domestic
industrial wastes varies. sewage
Industrial wastes deoxygenates at
deoxygenates at a rate of five a constant rate.
times the rate at which
sewage deoxygenates. Some
wastes have no organic matter
and thus no deoxygenating
rate or oxygen demands.
 Difference between industrial waste and municipal
waste

Sl. Industrial waste Municipal waste

No
5 Industrial plants are generally Municipal
managed by personnel who officials are
have been trained and brought mostly home
in from some distant location town people who
have gained the
respect of and
confidence of
town people over
number of years.
Effect of industrial waste on streams

• All industrial waste affect in some way the

normal life of stream.
• When the effect is sufficient, to render the
stream unacceptable for its “best usage”, it
is said to be polluted.
• “Best usage” means what the word imply
from use of water for drinking, bathing,
fishing and so forth.
Effect of industrial waste on streams
• Stream can assimilate a certain quantity of
waste before reaching a pollutant state.
• Generally larger, swifter and more remote
streams that are not much used are able
to tolerate a considerable amount of waste
but not too much of any type of polluting
material causing nuisance.
• To call a stream polluted, therefore
generally means that a stream contains an
excessive amount of specific pollutants.
 Specific pollutants in streams
• 1. Inorganic salts
• 2. Acid and/or alkalis
• 3. Organic matter
• 4. Suspended solids
• 5. Floating solids and liquids
• 6. Heated water
• 7. Color
• 8. Toxic chemicals
• 9. Micro-organisms
• 10 Radioactive materials
• 11. Foam
 1. Inorganic salts
• Inorganic salts which are present in most
industrial waste as well as in nature itself,
cause water to be hard and make the
stream undesirable for industrial,
municipal and agricultural usage
 2. Acid and/or alkalis
• Acid and/or alkalis discharged chemicals
and other industrial plants make a stream
unsuitable not only for recreational uses
such as swimming and boating but also for
propagation of fish and other aquatic life.
 3. Organic matter
• Organic matter exhausts the oxygen resources.
• Rivers create unpleasant taste, odors and
general septic condition, fish and most aquatic
life get stifled by lack of oxygen.
• The oxygen level combined with other stream
conditions determines life and death of fish.
Certain organic chemicals such as phenol affect
the taste of domestic water supplies
(Objectionable medicinal taste).
 4. Suspended solids
• Suspended solids settle to the bottom or wash
upon to the banks, decompose causing odor
and depleting oxygen in the river water.
• Fishes often die because of sudden lowering of
oxygen content of a stream and solids that settle
to the bottom will cover the spawning grounds
and inhibits propagations.
• Visible sludge creates unsightly conditions and
destroys the use of river for recreational
purposes.
 5. Floating solids and liquids
• Floating solids and liquids include oils,
grease and other floating materials which
float on the surface not only make the river
unsightly but also obstruct the passage of
water retarding the growth of vital plant
food.
5. Floating solids and liquids….
Some specific effects of oil in streams are that
• It interferes with natural aeration
• Toxic to certain specific fish and other aquatic
life
• Creates fire hazard when present in sufficient
amount on the surface of water
• Destroys the vegetations along the shore line
with consequent erosion
• Affect recreational use
 6. Heated water
• An increase in water temperature brought by
discharging water such as condenser water in
various streams has various adverse effects.
• Stream water which vary in temperature from
one hour to the next are difficult to process
effectively in municipal and industrial wastewater
treatment plants and heated stream water are of
decreased value for industrial cooling.
• One industry may increase the temperature of a
stream that a neighboring industry in down
stream can not use the water.
 6. Heated water….
• Further warm water is lighter than, so that
stratification develops and this causes
most fishes to life to retreat to stream
bottoms.
• Since there may be less dissolved oxygen
warm water than cold water, aquatic life
suffers and less oxygen is available for
natural biological degradation of every
organic pollution discharged in to this
warm surface water.
 7. Color
• Color contributed by textiles and paper mills,
tanneries, slaughter houses and other industries
is an indicator of pollution. Compounds present
in wastewater absorb certain wavelength of light
and reflect the remainder.
• A fact generally concedes to account for color
development of streams.
• Color interferes with the transmission of sunlight
to the streams and therefore lessens
photosynthetic action.
 7. Color….
• Visible pollution often causes more trouble
to for industry than invisible pollution.
• Unseen pollution which does not create
nuisance will often be tolerated by state
agencies, but the red and deep brown
colors of slaughter house wastewater, the
browns of paper mills wastewater, various
intense colors of textile mill wastes and
yellow colors of plating mill wastewater will
focus public indignations directly on those
industries.
 7. Color….
• It is only human to complain about
pollution. Property value decreases along
a visibly polluted river.
• Fewer people will swim boat and fish in a
stream highly colored by industrial
wastewater.
 8. Toxic chemicals
• Toxic chemicals, both organic and
inorganic even in extremely low
concentrations, may be poisonous to fresh
water fishes and other smaller aquatic
micro-organisms.
• Some of the compounds as toxophene,
deldrin and dichlorobenzene have killed
fishes in pond and streams.
 9. Micro-organisms
• A few industries such as tanneries and
slaughterhouses sometimes discharge
wastewater containing bacteria.
• Vegetables and fruit canneries may also
add bacteria contamination to streams.
• Some of the bacteria’s may be pathogen
which may affect humans.
 10 Radioactive materials
• The manufacturer of fissionable materials,
the increasing use of atomic energy and
the projected development of atomic
power facilities have introduced new
complication in the field of environmental
engineering.
• The problem of disposing radioactive
waste is unique, since the effects of
radiation can be immediate or delayed and
radiation will have cumulative effects on
living cells
 11. Foam
• Foam producing matter such as is
discharged by textile mills, pulp and paper
mills and chemical plants give an
undesirable appearance to the receiving
streams.
• It is an indicator of contamination and is
often more objectionable in a stream than
lack of oxygen
Effect of industrial wastewater on
sewage treatment plants
• The pollution characteristics of wastes
having readily definable effects on sewers
and treatment plant can be classified as
follows
• 1. Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
• 2. Suspended solids
• 3. Floating materials and colored matter
• 4. Volume
• 5. Other harmful constituents
 1. Biochemical oxygen demand
(BOD)
• BOD is usually exerted by dissolved and
colloidal organic matter and imposes a load on
the biological units of the treatment plant.
• Oxygen must be provided so that bacteria can
grow and oxidize the organic matter.
• An added BOD load, caused by an increase in
organic wastes, requires more bacterial activity,
more oxygen and greater biological unit capacity
for its treatment..
 1. Biochemical oxygen demand
(BOD)….
• This was for an increase in both capital
outlay and daily operating expense.
• The rate of decomposition for industrial
organic matter may be faster or slower
than for sewage organic matter and this
difference must be considered in the
design and operation of biological units.
 2. Suspended solids
• Suspended solids are found in considerable quantity in
many industrial wastes, such as cannery and paper mill
effluents.
• They are screened and/or settled out of the sewage at
disposal plant.
• Solids removed by settling and separated from the
flowing sewage are called sludge, which may then
undergo an anaerobic decomposition known as digestion
and be pumped to drying beds or vacuum filters for
extraction of additional water.
• Certain settleable solids from industrial of fine grit and
insoluble precipitators may hinder sludge system.
 2. Suspended solids….
• Suspended solids in industrial waste may settle
more rapidly or slowly than sewage suspended
matter.
• If industrial solids settle faster than those of
municipal sewage, sludge would be removed at
shorter intervals to prevent excessive build up.
• A faster settling industrial waste may accelerate
the settling of sewage solids, a slower settling
one will require a longer detention period and
larger basins and increase the likely load of
sludge decomposition, with accompanying
nuisances, during slack sewage flow periods.
 3. Floating materials and colored
matter
• Floating materials and colored matter such as oil,
grease and dyes from textile mills are disagreeable
and visible nuisances.
• Visible pollution retards the development of a
community or area, since it discourages camping,
boating, swimming and fishing recreations
indispensable to the vitality of a physically and
mentally healthy community and industry is
reluctant to locate on a stream which is visibly
polluted.
• It is therefore imperative that nuisance such as
color and floating matter be removed by the
sewage treatment plant.
 3. Floating materials and colored
matter….
• A modern treatment plant will remove grease load
in primary settling tanks, bur abnormally high loads
of predominantly emulsified grease from laundries
and slaughter houses rendering plants and so forth
passing through the primary units (screens, grit
chambers and settling basins) into the biological
units will clog flows, disturbing devices and air
nozzles.
• A lengthy shut down of these units may result in
stream pollution and sudden loss of fish life.
 3. Floating materials and colored
matter….
• Color removal of the treatment units and sewage plants is
knotty problem and too little effort has been made so far to
find an effective solution.
• Since most of the colored matter is in dissolved state, it is
not altered by conventional primary devices.
• Although secondary treatment units such as activated
sludge and trickling filter remove a certain percentage of
colored matter, sewage treatment plants are not generally
designed to remove color.
• So any reduction in this constituent is fortune coincidence,
but because of the detriment to streams, municipal disposal
plant should in the future give increased consideration to
removal of color.
 4. Volume
• A sewage treatment can handle any amount of
flow if its units are sufficiently large.
• Unfortunately, most sewage plants are already
in operation when a request comes to accept the
flow waste from some new industrial concern.
• The hydraulic capacity of all units then is
analyzed.
• Sewer lines must be examined for carrying
capacity, bar screens for horizontal velocity,
settling basins for detention periods, surface and
weir over flow rates, trickling filter for excessive
hydraulic loading and so forth.
 5. Other harmful constituents
• Industrial waste may contain harmful
ingredients in addition to the polluting
loads.
• These wastes can case malfunctioning of
the sewer system and/or the disposal
plants.
• Some nuisance and their accompanying
effects are
5. Other harmful constituents….
• Toxic metal ions (Cu++, Cr6+, Zn++, Cn-) which
interfere with biological oxidation by tying up
enzymes required to oxidize organic matter.
• Feathers which clog nozzles overload digesters
and impede proper pump operations.
• Wastes which clog pumps and valves and
interfere with proper operations of bar screens
or comminutors.
• Acids and alkalis which may corrode pipes,
pumps and treatment units, interfere with
settling, upset the biological purification of
sewage, release odors and intensify color.
5. Other harmful constituents….
• Flammable which cause fire and may lead
to explosion.
• Pieces which clogs nozzles and pumps
and over load digesters.
• Noxious gases which present a direct
danger to workers.
• Detergents which cause foaming of
aerator units.
• Phenols and other organic materials.
 Stream quality
• Streams serve people in many ways and
the carrying away of pollution continuously
is one of the chief resources performed.
• However there are other important uses of
stream water such as drinking, bathing,
fishing, irrigation, navigation, recreation
and power.
• A stream must therefore be protected, so
that it can serve the best interest of people
using it.
 Standards of stream quality
• The method of maintaining a stream in
acceptable condition range from very
flexible control, in which individuals make
decisions about wastewater treatment, to
rigid control laws specifying stream and
effluent standards.
 Standards of stream quality
• There are two methods for rigid protection
of streams.
• One is the “effluent standards” and the
other “stream standards”.
 Effluent standards
• The effluent standards system requires
that, in all effluents from a certain type of
industry, the waste discharged be kept
below either a fixed percentage or a
certain maximum concentration of
polluting matter.
 Effluent standards
• The effluent standard system is easier to
control than the stream standard system.
• No detailed stream analysis are needed to
determine the exact amount of wastewater
treatment required and effluent standards
can serve as a guide to a state in stream
classification or during the organization of
any pollution abatement programme.
 Effluent standards
• On the other hand unless the effluent
standards are upgraded, this system does
not provide any protection for an
overloaded stream.
• Standards for effluents are based more on
economics and practicability of treatment
than on absolute protection of stream; the
best usage of stream is not the primary
consideration.
 Effluent standards
• Rather the usage of the stream depends
on its condition after industrial effluent
standards have been satisfied.
• Upgrading and conservation of natural
resources are somewhat neglected in
favor of industrial economics.
 Effluent standards
• Another disadvantage to this approach is that there is
normally no control over the total volume of the polluting
substance added to the stream each day.
• The large industry although providing the same degree
of waste treatment as the small one, may actual be
responsible for a major portion of the pollution in the
stream.
• It might be argued that, larger industries by virtue of their
value to the area should be allocated a larger portion of
the assimilating capacity of a stream.
 Stream standards
• The stream standard system is based on
establishing classification or standards of quality
for a stream and regulating any discharge into it
to the extent necessary to maintain the
established stream classification or quality.
• The primary motive of stream standards is to
protect and preserve each stream for its best
usage, on an equitable basis for both upstream
and down stream users, although the upstream
often possesses a decided advantage because
of location.
 Stream standards
• A long and involved process of stream
classification usually precedes any
decision about waste treatment.
• Streams are classified in a manner set
forth by state laws, sampled and analyzed
for existing pollution and surveyed for
present and potential usages.
 Stream standards
• The regulatory agencies after holding a public
hearing to listen to comments from interested
parties concerning the best usage, then decides
on the highest usage of the stream or selection
of stream.
• Naturally the higher the classification, the
cleaner the stream must be, with resulting
greater degree of waste treatment required.
• Formal notification is served on each polluter,
giving a time limit for positive remedial action to
maintain the stream in its classification.
 Stream standards
• The main advantage of the stream standard
system is the prevention of excessive pollution,
regardless of the type of industry or other factors
such as the location of the industries and
municipalities.
• It also allows the public to establish goals for
present and future water quality. Loading is
limited to what the stream can assimilate and
this may impart hardship on an industrial plant at
critical spot along the stream.
• Pollution abatement should be considered in
decisions concerning the location of a plant.
 Stream quality criteria
• 1. For public water supply
• 2. For industrial waste supply
• 3. For aquatic life
 1. For public water supply

• (i) Bacteria: Coliform groups not to exceed

5000/100 ml as monthly average value.
• (ii) Threshold number: Odors number not to
exceed 24 (at 600C) as a daily average value.
• (iii) Dissolved solids: Not to exceed 500 mg/l
as a monthly average value, nor exceed 750
mg/l at any time.
• (iv) Radioactive substance: Gross net activity
not to exceed 1000 Pico Curies per liter (PCi/l)
nor activity from dissolved strontium to exceed
10 PCi/l, nor shall activity from dissolved alpha
emitters exceed 3 PCi/l.
 1. For public water supply
Constituent Concentration (mg/l)

Arsenic 0.05

Barium 1.0

Cadmium 0.01

Chromium 0.05
(hexavalent)
 1. For public water supply
Constituent Concentration (mg/l)

Cyanide 0.025

Fluoride 1.0

Lead 0.05

Selenium 0.01

Silver 0.05
 2. For industrial waste supply

• (i) Dissolved oxygen: Not less than 2.0

mg/l as a daily average value.
• (ii) pH: Not less than 5.0 or greater than
9.0 at any time.
• (iii) Temperature: Not to exceed 350 C at
any time.
• (iv) Dissolved solids: To neither exceed
750 mg/l on a monthly average value nor
exceed 1000 mg/l at any time.
 3. For aquatic life

• (i) Dissolved oxygen: Not less than 5.0

mg/l.
• (ii) pH: No values below 5.0 or above 9.0
preferably between 6.5 and 8.5.
• (iii) Temperature: Not to exceed 340 C at
any time.
• (iv)Toxic substances: Not to exceed one
tenth of the 48 hour median tolerance limit.
 Industrial effluent standards for disposal into
streams
• The rapid industrialization of India, make it
necessary to introduce the minimum
possible limit of standard of industrial
effluent, which can be allowed to
discharge in the streams.
 Industrial effluent standards for disposal into
streams

• As per this standard, following are the standards of

the 5 day BOD at 200C of effluent to be discharged
into inland surface water as 30 mg/l.
• 1. In exceptional cases the BOD may be allowed up
to 100 mg/l.
• 2. As for as possible and practicable, it should be
free from color and unpleasant odors.
• 3. Its pH value should be between 5.5 to 9.
• 4. For the out let up to 15 m down stream, the
temperature should not be more than 400 C in
section of the stream.
 Industrial effluent standards for disposal into
streams
• 5. Oil, grease, phenolic compounds, cyanides (as CN) and
sulphides (as S) should not exceed 10.0, 1.0, 0.2 and 2.0
mg/l respectively.
• 6. Total suspended solids should not exceed 100 mg/l.
• 7. Presence of arsenic, cadmium, barium, chromium,
copper, mercury, lead, selenium, nickel, silver and zinc
should not exceed 1.0 mg/l collectively.
• 8. Total residual chlorines and fluorides as (F) should not
exceed 1.0 and 2 mg/l respectively
• 9. Radioactive materials like alpha and beta emitters should
not exceed 10-9 and 10-8 μc/ml respectively.
 Industrial effluent standard for disposal on
land

• According to IS: 3307-1965 following are the tolerance

limits for industrial effluents for industrial effluents
discharged on land for irrigation purposes:
• 1. The total dissolved inorganic solids should not exceed
2100 mg/l.
• 2. 5-day BOD at 200 C should not exceed 500 mg/ l.
• 3. pH value effluent should be between 5.5 to 9.
• 4. Quantity of sulphates and chlorides should not exceed
1000 and 600 mg/l respectively.
• 5. Quantity of oil and grease should not be more than 30
mg/l.
• 6. Quantity of boron should not exceed 2 mg/l.
 Industrial effluent standards for
disposal into sewers
• According to IS: 3306-1965, the tolerance
limits for industrial effluents discharged into
public sewer are as follows:
• 1. Its pH value should be between 5.5 to 9.
• 2. 5-day BOD at 200 C should not exceed
500 mg/ l.
• 3. Lead, copper and zinc should not exceed
1.0, 3.0 and 15 mg/l respectively.
• 4. Effluent temperature should not exceed
450 C.
 Industrial effluent standards for disposal into
sewers….

• 5. Quantity of suspended solids should not

exceed 600 mg/l.
• 6. Chromium, nickel and cyanide should not
exceed 2 % each.
• 7. Effluent containing solids such as straw,
plastics, wood, paint residue, gross solids from
cannery wastes, cinder, ash, sand, tar, rag, hair,
metal shavings, garbage, broken glass etc,
should not be discharged into public sewers.
 Industrial effluent standards for
disposal into sewers….
• 8. Phenolic compounds, sulphates and
total inorganic dissolved solids should not
exceed 5, 1000 and 2000 mg/l
respectively.
• 9. Total suspended solids should not
exceed 600 mg/l.
• 10. Chlorides and boron should not
exceed 600 and 2.0 mg/l respectively.
 Stream sampling
• The following factors are considered in a sampling
program.
• 1. Overall objectives of the program
• 2. Total numbers of samples
• 3. Points of collection
• 4. Method of collection
• 5. Data to be obtained
• 6. Frequency of sample collection
• 7. Time of year of sampling
• 8. Statistical handling of data
• 9. Care of samples prior too analysis
 1. Overall objectives of the program
• Program may vary considerably in their objectives.
• The importance of other eight factors will depend to some
degree on the overall objectives of the survey.
• In one instance the engineer may be concerned with the
effect of an upstream industry on the water quality
downstream, color of the receiving stream may be of
interest.
• In another instance he may be attempting to ascertain the
dissolved oxygen sag characteristics of the stream during
the summer only.
• In still another case he could be concerned that the stream
characteristics comply with the classification standards
established by the state pollution control authorities.
 2. Total numbers of samples
• The number of samples required depends on the
objectives of the program and the amount of
time and the effort being devoted to the survey.
• The use of few locations and enough samples to
define the results in terms of statistical
significance is usually much more reliable than
using many stations with only a few samples
from each.
• Also samples are frequently taken over a long
time interval, during which the condition of the
water course is subject to variation.
 2. Total numbers of samples….
• In many instances, an attempt to test all
conditions by infrequent, random sampling
produces no definite pattern and infact may be
misleading.
• It may be better to concentrate on well defined,
frequent and intensive sampling.
• The number of samples required often depends
on the ability of the engineer to collect samples
which include all significant factors.
 3. Points of collection
• Sampling points should be selected with great care and
special consideration given to source of pollution, dilution
by branch streams, change in surrounding topography
and slope of the river.
• Significant river side features should also influence the
choice of sampling points; a municipal water intake, a
state park, an industrial area, a good fishing spot, a hotel
or a camping site would each have a definite bearing on
the usage of the stream.
• Since the acceptable pollution limits for waters vary
according to usage, samples should be collected and a
record made of the condition of the stream just above
and just below all such points of stream or usage.
 3. Points of collection….
• A minimum of five stations are recommended:
• a) An upstream site, where the water is uncontaminated.
• b) Just below the source of pollution or dilution
• c) Where the stream is in the worst condition due to a
specific source of pollution (bottom of oxygen sag)
• d) A point midway between bottom of oxygen sag and
recovery level
• e) Sampling stations should be located, as nearly as
possible at points of uniform cross section, non shifting
bottom minimum stream width ( to facilitate sampling and
increase accuracy of flow measurements) and average
velocity.
 4. Method of collection
• Samples should be taken from a 0.6 depth
in streams less than 1 m deep.
• In deeper streams, it is necessary for the
sampler to composite portions taken from
depth level of 0.2 and 0.8.
• When the stream flow remains quite
steady, equal portions of each sample may
be composited for analysis.
• Glass bottles with glass caps and
polythene containers are most widely used.
 5. Data to be obtained
• The scientific collection data for streams analysis may be
divided into three major categories.
• Hydrologic factors, source of pollution and water course
sampling.
• The type of data to be obtained depends on the
objectives of the survey and the amount of time and
money available for the investigation.
• For example, if the oxygen resources of a section of a
stream are the main concerns of the regulatory agency,
dissolved oxygen, water temperature and stream flow
should be measured over as long and as critical period
as possible.
 5. Data to be obtained….
• If the survey is of general nature, the stream analyst
should under take as many chemical, physical and
biological tests as possible, to assist him in later
interpretation and the evaluation of the data.
• It is found that surveys containing only four
measurements-rate of flow, temperature, BOD, and
dissolved oxygen can supply information sufficient for
design of waste treatment units.
• In addition, data on pH, color and turbidity may indicate
the general physical condition of the stream.
• Biological analysis is required when the stream water is
used for drinking, bathing or fishing.
• In this case, the coliform count is usually determined
 6. Frequency of sample collection
• Samples should be collected as frequently
as is necessary to provide a representative
total sample.
• The master sample should contain
individual constituents of every variations
expected.
• For example, if pH is known to vary from 4
to 10, individual sample with pH values of 4,
5, 6,7,8,9 and 10 should appear in the
composite at least during each sampling
period.
 7. Time of year of sampling
• The time is of utmost importance when there is a deadline
for producing results.
• In streams studies dealing with industrial waste treatment
one is primarily concerned with critical condition of pollution,
which generally exist when the environment is at its
warmest, the stream flows slowest and the pollution is
greatest under normal conditions, these critical situations
occur in the summer months, so that ideal time for stream
survey is during the summer.
• But because of the urgency of the problem or unusual
conditions of runoff or pollution, investigations may be
carried out on any season.
• It is always better to collect data during critical stream
conditions of temperature, flow and pollution load, when the
probability of error is less.
 8. Statistical handling of data
• It is well known fact that can be manipulated to
emphasize that aspect of the survey which the
analyst seems most important.
• Knowledge of statistics and mathematics is
essential in order to convey this information in
the best form to the layman.
• For example when studying the “most probable
number” (MPN) of coliform bacteria present in a
stream, the arithmetic mean would not clearly
describe and emphasize this number, whereas
the geometric mean or mode, may well illustrate
it accurately.
 9. Care of samples prior too analysis
• All samples should be analyzed as soon as possible after
collection.
• On bank analysis is recommended whenever possible.
• All samples subjected to even the slightest chemical,
physical or biological change should be chilled immediately
and kept at a temperature from 00 to 100 C. Suitable
preservative should be used to preserve the sample for
particular analysis.
• For example phenol sample should be preserved with
copper sulphate.
• Plastic sampling bottles should be avoided when a reaction
is possible between the constituents of the waste, such as
organic solvents and plastic.
• Likewise, metal containers and caps should not be used to
hold wastes on which metals are to be determined.
 Economics of wastewater treatment
• Industrial waste treatment has been
encouraged, promoted and even dictated by
state and federal governments on the premise
that industrial waste are similar to municipal
wastes and constitute a public health menace.
• It has long been recognized, that the public
health hazard of industrial waste is unlike that of
municipal waste and is often non existent.
• However there are benefits from waste
treatment which exists but are difficult to
describe in quantifiable terms.
 Economics of wastewater treatment
• Most of the real benefits which results from
industrial waste treatment are considered
“irreducible”.
• This is primarily because no one has been
willing or able to money value on them. If we can
identify these benefits and indicate means to
quantify them (whether possible), both industry
and the public will be in a position to examine
the economics of a given waste treatment
situation.
• There are three categories of benefits in any
project: primary, secondary (Indirect) and
intangible)
 Primary benefits
• a) Savings in money to the industrial firm by
reuse of treated effluent instead of fresh water
• b) Savings in money resulting from compliance
with regulatory agencies, i.e., avoidance of legal
and expert fees and time of management
involved in court cases.
• c) Savings in money from increased production
efficiency, made possible by improved
knowledge of the waste producing process and
particles.
 Secondary benefits
• a) Savings in money to downstream consumers
from improved water quality and hence lowered
operating and damage costs.
• b) Increase in employment, higher local payroll
and greater economic purchasing power of
labour force used in construction and operation
of waste treatment facilities.
• c) Increased economic growth of the area due to
the commitment of the industry to waste
treatment and potential for expansion at the
existing plant.
 Secondary benefits
• d) Increased economic growth of area with more clean
water available for additional industrial operations, which
in turn yield more employment and money for the area.
• e) Increased value of adjacent properties as a result of a
cleaner, more desirable receiving stream.
• f) Increased population for the area since cleaner water
will be available at a lower cost; the limiting factors of
water cost and quantity have been pushed back further
into the future.
• g) Increased recreational use, such as fishing, boating,
swimming, as a result of increased purity of water,
recreational opportunities previously eliminated are
available gain.
 Intangible benefits
• a) Good public relations and an improved
image after installation of pollution
abatement devices.
• b) Improved mental health of citizens in
the area confident of having adequate
waste treatment and clean waters.
• c) Improved conservation practices, which
will eventually yield payoffs in the form of
more clean water for more people for more
years.
 Intangible benefits
• d) Renewal and preservation of scenic
beauty and historical sites.
• e) Residential development potential for
land areas nearby because of the
presence of clean recreational waters.
• f) Elimination of relocation of arts (of
persons, groups and establishments)
because of impure waters.
 Intangible benefits
• g) Removal of potential physical health hazards
of using polluted water for recreation.
• h) Industrial capital investment assumes
permanence of the plant in the area thus lending
confidence to other firms and citizens depending
on the output produced by the industry.
• i) Technological progress, resulting from the
conception, design, construction and operation
of industrial wastewater treatment facilities.
 Legislation to control water
pollution
• Legal restrictions, threat of police power
etc has been less effective than the co-
operation between industry and health
officials. The danger to public health due
to pollution of streams by municipal and
industrial wastes compelled public health
authorities to adopt legislation for
protection of public health. In most
countries of the world, the water pollution
act exists in some form.
 Legislation to control water
pollution
• In India, the Indian factory act empowers
inspectorates of factories to ensure proper
treatment of waste before disposal.
• But lack of sufficient standards and
guidance in the treatment measure
required, greatly affect the desired control.
 Legislation to control water
pollution
• A committee was formed in 1962 under the
health ministry to draft a law for water
pollution control.
• Consequently, the pollution control act was
passed in 1974 covering water pollution. In
1981, one more act was passed to cover
air pollution also.
• Under these acts, pollution control boards
have been formed in all states to keep a
watch over the environment.