Theories of Public

Sector
Communications
Learning objectives

• Upon completion of this class, students will:

• Increase their understanding of what a theory is.
• Be able to identify a non-exhaustive list of theories relevant to
government communication.
• Be able to use these theories advantageously in the development of the
various public communication plans
Theory definitions and applications

Set of abstract knowledge related to each other in a particular field.

A series of proposals or principles designed to explain a group of facts or phenomena, especially one that
has been repeatedly tested or is widely accepted and can be used to make predictions about
phenomena.

A theory is a set of propositions used to logically unify concepts in order to explain and interpret certain
aspects of reality that are to be accounted for.

Theory enables the practitioner to predict the outcomes of interventions and the relationships between
internal and external variables (Corcoran, 2007).
 Characteristics of a theory

inception of unverified Interaction between Accumulation of facts and

imaginative models observation and generalizations without links.
interpretation
The theory serves as a
guide

Deductive axis fonctionnal aspect Inductive axis

 Validity of a theory

Internal validity (of deduction) External Validity (of inductive)

O O O
Theory
1 2 3

H H
H
3 Theory
1
2

Do hypotheses normally derive from theory? A theory holds true when its conclusions are supported
by a large number of cases and a variety of observations

Insistence on the logical links between Insistence on the logical links between observations
postulate and hypotheses and hypotheses
 • A set of assumptions, concepts,
values and practices that constitute
a way of seeing reality for the
community that shares them,
especially in an intellectual
Paradigms discipline.
 Models

In the broad sense, a model Communication models are Models are metaphors.
is a systematic simply images, they are They allow us to see one
representation of an object even distortion images, thing instead of another to
or event in idealized and because they stop or freeze facilitate understanding.
abstract form. The key to an essentially dynamic,
the usefulness of a model is interactive or transaction
the degree to which it process into a static image.
conforms - point by point or
by correspondence - to the
fundamental determinants
of communicative behavior
(Mortensen 1977).
 The allow to ask questions
• A good model is useful because it
provides both the general perspective
and allows the examination of particular
points of view from which one can ask
questions and interpret raw things after
observation.

The advantage They clarify complex aspects

of the models
• Models also help clarify the structure of
complex events. Thus, the goal of a
model is not to ignore the complexity or
simply to explain it, but rather to give it
order and coherence.

They should lead us to new

discoveries
• Models have a heuristic value. They
provide new ways of conceiving ideas
and establishing hypothetical
relationships. This could be their most
important function.
Moral suasion vs
Persuasion
To avoid raising the ethical question that will
eventually be addressed, Moral suasion's
neologism must be usedwhen it comes to
public sector communication.

When a government uses persuasion rather

than regulatory coercion to convince citizens to
take a particular course of action.

It is a little bit different from the Persuasion.

Two main groups of theory in public
communication
Structural theories
• They focus more on the
communication process, the
steps and mechanisms for
effective implementation.
Transformative theories
• Behavioral in essence and
psychosocial in nature, they are
interested in the psychology of
the target audience (s) and in
the circumstances likely to lead
to changes in the behavior of
individuals.
• Some of them are also called
stages theories.
1st part:

Structural
theories
Input-output model (McGuire,
2001)

• The model is a matrix of inputs and outputs – applied to persuasion, the inputs
are the different aspects of the persuasion/communication attempt, and outputs
are the stages of persuasion, each of which can be measured as a measure of
how persuasive the communication has been.
• Advantages-Disadvantages:
• Allows a detailed description of the phenomenon
• Used to estimate the impacts of the communication action
• Analyze communication cycles
• Mathematical model
Input-output

• There are five “inputs” : Source, i.e. the credibility, attraction, trustworthiness etc of the
sender Message, i.e. the type, strength, repetition etc of the argument Channel, i.e. type
of media and way in which the message is “broadcast” Receiver, i.e. attitude, beliefs, prior
knowledge etc of the person receiving the message Context, i.e. environmental factors,
noise, clutter etc influencing the message
• here are five “inputs” : Source, i.e. the credibility, attraction, trustworthiness etc of the
sender Message, i.e. the type, strength, repetition etc of the argument Channel, i.e. type
of media and way in which the message is “broadcast” Receiver, i.e. attitude, beliefs, prior
knowledge etc of the person receiving the message Context, i.e. environmental factors,
noise, clutter etc influencing the message
The matrix
Source Message Channel Receiver Context
Exposure
Attention
Interest/liking
Comprehension
Acquisition
Agreeing
Memorising
Retrieving
Deciding
Acting
Reinforcement
Consolidation
Model of the • It is more of a typology of communication
strategies than of a theory as such. It has

government
four stages:
1. Retention of information
2. Dissemination of information
communication 3. Staging special events
4. Persuasion of the public
process (Hiebert, • The model makes it possible, among other
things, to identify the appropriate

1981)
communication tools for government
communication.
Public environment
analysis
Model from marketing that takes into
consideration the internal and external elements
of the organization.

External analysis concerns social and cultural

issues, political and administrative analysis,
economic, technological, market and competition.

Internal analysis of performance, managerial

capabilities, team building, customer relations and
infrastructure.
Public environment
analysis methodologies

Group Surveys and In-depth

discussion polls interview

Media analysis Various

consultations
Public relations process model (Hazelton and
Long, 1988)
Public relations message strategy use and effectiveness focuses on the message variable in the communication process (Werder & Holtzhausen, 2009).

The model explains public relations as an open system consisting of multiple dimensions and subsystems. Specifically, the public relations process consists
of:
(1) input from the environment (exogenous input) to the (2) transformation of inputs into communication goals, (3) output, in the form of messages, to target audiences
system, objectives, and campaigns, and located in internal and external environments.

Target audience reactions to public relations messages provide stimuli or further input for organizational maintenance or adaptation, refinement of the
public relations process, and alteration of the environment in which the organization exists” (Hazleton & Long, 1988,p. 80).
The power of symbols

Hazleton (1993) stated that public relations communication consists of symbols

encoded as an organizational message that is decoded by the public. In public
relations, messages can be analyzed as symbolic communication that contains
unique physical, social, and psychological properties: “physically, messages are
tangible stimuli that can be perceived.

Psychologically, meanings attributed to messages by receivers can be specified.

Socially, significant others influence individual message evaluation processes”
(Hazleton & Long, 1988, p. 85).
Taxonomies of strategies
• Informative strategy: An informative strategy is based on the presentation of objective facts that
do not draw conclusions. Informative messages are typically characterized as using neutral
language to aid comprehension.
• Facilitative strategy: A facilitative strategy involves providing resources to the public to influence
the desired public action. Resources can range from tangible items to directions for accomplishing
a specific task. “Facilitative strategies are useful when the public recognizes a problem, agrees
remedial action is needed, is open to external assistance, and is willing to engage in self-help”
(Zaltman & Duncan, 1977, p. 132).
• Persuasive strategy: The purpose of a persuasive strategy is to make an appeal to the public’s
values or emotions. Persuasive messages are directive, in which there is a call to action issued.
Persuasive strategies are useful when it is necessary for an organization to ask the public to
reallocate resources from one organization to their own. Typically, persuasive messages are used
in order to gain favoritism for the organization’s cause or issue.
 • Cooperative problem-solving
strategy: This strategy reflects an
organization’s willingness to not
only define a problem, but also find
Taxonomie a solution for that problem.
Characteristics of this strategy
include an open exchange of
of strategies information in order to identify
what a problem may be and then
(followind) sharing responsibility and position
for that problem. Inclusive language
is typically used (Zaltman & Duncan,
• Bargaining strategy: This strategy
1977).
• Promise and reward strategy:
Promise and reward strategies are
used when an organization promises
a reward to a public if they act a
certain way. According to Page and
Hazleton (2000a, b), “this strategy
uses positive coercion in that it
implies that the source of the
message controls an outcome
desired by the receiver of the
message” (p. 6).
• Threat and punishment strategy:
This strategy implies that the
source of the message controls an
outcome that is feared or disliked
by the message’s receiver. In other
words, an organization may
threaten the public if they do not
do what the organization asks of
them.
equalizes the sender and receiver.
Bargaining messages are
characterized by the use of
contrasting symbols, which
differentiate groups such as “they”
and “we.” Strategic withholding of
information and acts of deception
are used in order to mislead
others concerning a wide range of
alternatives. Pitting one group
against another group falls into
this category.
Decision wheel
model for public
sector (Liu and
Horsley, 2007)
These
Public
constraints
relations
and
practices
opportunities
in the government
include: politics,
are undoubtedly
public good, influenced
legal constraints,
by the devaluation
developmentofof
communication,
Nevertheless,
Individuals move poor
the public public
between
sector perceptions,
routines
private
environment inlagging
industry the
andbroader
creates professional
profession.
government,
unique development,
constraints
taking knowledgeand federalism.
and opportunities
they havethat
learned in
In addition, individuals
ultimately distinguishwork in one
a variety
government arenaofand
publicorganizations,
relations
applyingfrom many
it to of which
another.
corporate are hybrids
public of the two
relations.
sectors.
Public sector communication constrains
Politics. Politics encompass the essence of the public sector. In the public sector, politics may restrict creativity
and innovation in developing communication programs because elected officials do not want to appear too far
out of the mainstream (Horsley & Barker, 2002).

Public good. Another key distinguishing characteristic of the public sector is that government agencies are
established to serve citizens. Of course, government agencies are not immune to market pressures—they often
have to compete against each other for funding and resources.

Legal constraints. Although the public good may guide government actions, legal constraints often limit the ability
of agencies to communicate fully and openly.

Media scrutiny. Public sector organizations also face a higher level of media scrutiny. Allison (2004) argued that
government decision-making is covered more often in the media than the actions of private companies and the
media can influence the timing of government decisions.
Devaluation of communication. Another primary environmental constraint on government public relations is the
lack of importance often placed on communication by management. This devaluing of the communication role has
had several tangible repercussions.

Poor public perception. Public perception can also devalue government communication. The negative
connotations of the term propaganda and the derogatory use of spin often make the public cynical about the
intentions of government communications, despite the fact that the majority of government information is honest
(Graber, 2003).

Lagging professional development. Perhaps due to both the government’s and the public’s negative perceptions
of government communication, the professional development of government communicators lags behind the
professional development of private sector communicators. Professionalism is necessary to elevate the public
image of a field (Ehling, 1992; Sieb & Fitzpatrick, 1995; Wright, 1981). Under this metric, public sector
communicators lag behind their private sector counterparts in the development of professionalism.
A new model for public sector

The model also highlights eight

This model incorporates the importance
environmental characteristics that affect
of the unique environmental
government communication and
characteristics of the public sector by
proposes how these characteristics
identifying four coexisting,
operate in each of the four
complementary microenvironments:
microenvironments
• multilevel,
• intragovernmental,
• Intergovernmental,
• and external.
The 5 Ps of marketing campaigns

Product: The specific behavior, program, policy, project that is to be promoted

Price: the cost (monetary and non-monetary) that individuals associate with the behavior to
adopt. It involves the cost of dropping an old habit and adopting a new.

Place: when and mostly where, the market will adopt the desired habit.

Promotion: It is the set of tools that make sure that the target audience knows the offer of change
available and that they believe in the benefits that come from adopting a new attitude.

Politics: In which political context the campaign is implemented.

 Transformativ
2 part:
nd
e theories
 • Individuals experience and observe their
world differently and need to create
meaning or make sense of their world
(Dervin, 1992, p.62);

Sense-making • Theorize human sense-making and sense-

unmaking Focuses on dialogue and

methodology
verbings;
• Exemplifies human information behavior

(Dervin, through the time-space context;

• Studies human information use from the

2003) perspective of the actor instead of the

observer;
• Conceptualizes human information use as
behaviors of a series of unending
(circling)step-takings (gapbridging) to
construct sense of their world.
Philosophical Premises and
Assumptions

“Information is not seen as

independent of human being but as
“Information is created at a specific
products of human observation in
moment in time-space by one or
both physical time-space and
more humans, but not in a strict
psychological time-space according
constructivist sense” (Dervin, 1992,
to the variation of people’s
p 64).
situations and experiences”
(Foreman-Wernet, 2003, p.6).
The message-centered
model

• Essentially based on the message

• Awareness Message / Introductory
Message / Persuasion Message
• positive fear appeal / negative fear
appeal
• A one-way argument versus a two-way
argument
• Clear or strategically ambiguous message
 The MCF represents a constructivist or interactives perspective of
argument in which individuals share their reasons for believing what
is probable, test these ideas against one another, and thereby reveal
points of convergences and divergence (Willard, 1979).
The Message
Convergence The MCF considers the ways in which individuals manage
uncertainty by observing the interplay of distinct and potentially

Framework disparate messages (Anthony & Sellnow, 2015).

(MCF)
The MCF has three practical propositions:

• 1. Convergence in the claims made by distinct sources, be it partial or complete,

increases the strength of those claims.
• 2. The more personally significant the points of convergence are to the audience, the
stronger the claims.
• 3. The strength of convergence may be modified (diminished or intensified) as a result
of reflection on this very convergence.
Health Belief • The health Belief Model (HBM) is by far the most commonly
used theory in health education and health promotion (Glanz,
model Rimer, & Lewis, 2002).
• The underlying concept of the HBM is that health behavior is
determinate by personal beliefs and perceptions about a
disease and the strategies available to decrease its
occurrence. Personnel perception is influenced by the whole
range of intrapersonal factors affecting health behavior.
• Four perceptions serve as the main constructs of the model:
perceived seriousness, perceived susceptibility, perceived
benefits, and perceived barriers.
 Perceived susceptibility: An
individual’s assessment of
his or her changes of getting
the disease.

Perceived benefits: An
Self-efficacy: Personal belief individual’s conclusion as to
in one’s own ability to do whether the new behavior is
something. better than what he or she
is already doing.

HBM main
definitions Cues to action: Those
factors that will start a
person on the way to
Perceived barriers:
individual’s opinion as to
what will stop him or her
from adopting the new
changing behavior.
behavior.

Modifying variables: An
Perceived seriousness: an
individual’s personal factors
Individual’s judgement as to
that effect whether the new
the severity of the disease.
behavior is adopted.
 • The Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) is a model that finds its

The
origins in the field of social psychology. Its defines the links
between beliefs, attitudes, norms, intentions, and behaviors of
individuals.
• According to this model, a person’s behavior is determined by

theory of
its behavioral intention to perform it. This intention is itself
determined by the person’s attitudes and his subjective norms
towards the behavior.

reasoned
• This theory can be summarized by the following equation:
Behavioral Intention = Attitude + Subjective norms.
• According to TRA, the attitude of a person towards a behavior is
determined by his beliefs on the consequences of this behavior,

action
multiplied by his evaluation of these consequences. Beliefs are
defined by the person’s subjective probability that performing a
particular behavior will produce specific results. This model
therefore suggests that external stimuli influence attitudes by
modifying the structure of the person’s beliefs.
The model
 Focuses on how to channel fear in a positive, protective direction
instead of a negative, maladaptive direction

Based on fear appeal, but also incorporates elements of

TRA/TPB, and self-efficacy

Extended Elements:
parallel
process model Campaign messages should contain:
• Threat component
• Increase perceived susceptibility
• Increase perceived severity

Efficacy component
• Perceived self-efficacy
• Response efficacy
Danger Control vs. Fear Control

• How do people control fear?

• How do people control risk or danger?
• How does knowing this help us make sense of people’s behaviors?
• “Fear is a chain reaction in the brain that starts when faced with a stressful stimulus and ends with the
release of chemicals that cause your heart to races, your breathing to escalate, and your muscles to
energize.” (DSC, 2013)
• Fight-or-flight concept
• Fear expressed:
• Physiologically (arousal)
• Language Behavior (verbal self-reports)
• Overt Acts (Facial expressions)
 External 1st Appraisal 2nd Appraisal
Stimulus
Danger
Control

Message Message
Components: High efficacy
Acceptance

Threat: Threat Fear Efficacy

-susceptibility appraisal
-severity Appraisal

Efficacy: Low efficacy

Message
-self-efficacy Rejection
-response
efficacy

Fear
Control
The theory of central and peripheral treatment

On the other hand, if s/he

is not very motivated
The central point of the (her/his interest is low) or
When the subject is both
theory is the assertion that if her/his cognitive abilities
motivated and able to
there is a continuum of are disturbed (if her/his
think, s/he is inclined to
elaboration based on the attention is distracted), the
carefully examine all the
ability and motivation of change of attitude can
information arising from
the individual to think result from the activation
the message, the source,
about the content of of inexpensive cognitive
the context, what s/he
persuasive communication mechanisms; it will only
feels, in order to form a
and to evaluate it in the attach importance to clues
fair opinion. It is said that
context of the attempt to unrelated to the content of
s/he takes the central way.
influence. the message. It is said that
s/he takes the peripheral
way
 • Theory that recognizes the influence of subjective norms
and is based on the belief that some people or groups have
a considerable influence on the audience when it comes
time to adopt certain risky behaviors.
• It is based on research in the theory of social cognition that
The role demonstrates that certain behaviors are acquired in society
through the observation of the actions of certain people
model theory and especially the consequences of their actions (Bandura).

(Rice and • Through observation learning, both children and adults notice what
actions tend to give more reward in society and those that often end

Atkin, 2001) badly

• Children tend to follow their peers
• Youth and adults will emulate those whom they consider to be their
idols or those they most identified with (Roles Model).
• This approach is problematic with the cyber age where people are
their own model and when you don’t need any exploit to be a star.
The Precaution Adoption Process Model

The PAPM attempts to Adoption of a new

explain how a person precaution or cessation of
comes to decisions to take a risky behavior requires
action and how he or she deliberate steps unlikely to
translates that decision occur outside of conscious
into action. awareness.
Different stages

People who reach the decision-

The PAPM identifies seven making stage (Stage 3) have
When they first learn something become engaged by the issue They may decide to take no
stages along the path from lack
about the issue, they are no and are considering their action, moving to Stage 4 and
of awareness to action. At some
longer unaware, but they are response. halting the precaution adoption
initial point in time, people are
not yet engaged by it either • This decision-making process can result in process, at least for the time
unaware of the health issue
(Stage 2). one of three outcomes: They may being.
(Stage 1). suspend judgment, remaining in Stage 3
for the moment.

For those who decide to adopt A seventh stage, if relevant,

Or, they may decide to adopt
the precaution, the next step is indicates that the behavior has
the precaution, moving to
to initiate the behavior (Stage been maintained over time
Stage 5.
6). (Stage 7).
Conceptualisation
 Theory of planned behavior

The TPB states that the closest determinant of behaviour is the intention to perform (or not
perform) that behaviour (Jackson et al. 2005; Lavin and Groarke 2005).

The TPB’s main determinant of behaviour is based on the person’s intention to perform that
behaviour, and intention is determined by three factors:
1 Attitude to the behaviour: the balancing of the 3 Perceived behavioural control: the perception
2 Subjective norm: social pressure from significant
pros/cons of performing the behaviour or the that person has about their ability to perform the
others, for example peers, media or family.
risks/rewards they associate with that choice. behaviour.
A simplistic view
 Transtheoritical model (TTM)

1 2
The model suggests that people
change their behaviour at certain
stages in life, rather than making
one major change. During these
incremental stages, they consider
whether or not to make changes to
their behaviour.
This cyclic model is based on the
premise that people are at different
levels of readiness to change, and
during the change process they
move through a series of stages.
3 4
People move from A person may start at any of these
precontemplation (not ready to stages and may move between
change) to contemplation (thinking stages.
of change), to preparation (getting
ready to change), to action
(performing the change), to
maintenance (continuing the
change), to relapse (abandoning
changes and reverting to former
behaviours).