MODULE 1

DATA COMMUNICATIONS, DATA NETWORKS,AND THE INTERNET

THE NEED FOR A PROTOCOL
ARCHITECTURE
• there must be a high degree of cooperation between the two
computer systems
• instead of implementing the logic as a single module, the task is
broken up into subtasks and implemented separately
• in a protocol architecture, the modules are arranged in a vertical stack
• each layer in the stack performs a related subset of the functions
required to communicate with another system
• same set of layered functions must exist in two systems
THE NEED FOR A PROTOCOL
ARCHITECTURE
• layers in two systems communicate
• peer layers communicate by means of blocks of data that obey a set
of rules or conventions known as a protocol

• The key features of a protocol are as follows:

• Syntax: Concerns the format of the data blocks
• Semantics: Includes control information for coordination and error handling
• Timing: Includes speed matching and sequencing
THE TCP/IP PROTOCOL ARCHITECTURE
• Communications can be said to involve three agents:
• applications,
• computers, and
• networks

• Computers are connected to networks

• the data to be exchanged are transferred by the network from one
computer to another
• transfer of data from one application to another involves, getting the data
to the computer and then getting the data to the intended application
THE TCP/IP PROTOCOL ARCHITECTURE
• The communication task is organized into five relatively independent
layers:
Physical layer
Network access layer
Internet layer
Host-to-host or transport layer
Application layer
THE TCP/IP PROTOCOL ARCHITECTURE
• TCP/IP Layers
• Physical Layer:
• covers the physical interface between a data transmission device and a
transmission medium or network
• concerned with the nature of the signals, the data rate, etc
• Network Access Layer:
• concerned with the exchange of data between an end system and network to
which it is attached
• concerned with routing data across a network for two end systems in same
network
THE TCP/IP PROTOCOL ARCHITECTURE
• Internet Layer
• internet Protocol (IP) is used here to provide the routing function across
multiple networks
• IP is implemented in end systems and routers
• Host-to-Host Layer, or Transport Layer:
• makes sure that all of the data arrive at the destination application
• the data arrives in the same order in which they were sent
• TCP protocol is most commonly used
• Application Layer:
• contains the logic needed to support the various user applications
Operation of
TCP and IP

• Subnetwork – a piece of a
larger network
• Ethernet is used to connect a
computer to a subnetwork
• Ethernet enables the host to
send data across the subnet
• If the host is in other network
then routers will be involved

Protocol configuration for communication

Operation of TCP and IP
• IP is implemented in all of the end systems and the routers
• IP moves a block of data from one host, through one or more routers to
another host
• TCP is implemented only in the end systems
• TCP keeps track that all of the data is delivered correctly to appropriate
application
• Each host on the network has a unique address used to deliver the data
to correct host and known as IP address
• Each process on a host has an address used by TCP to deliver data to
correct process known as ports
Protocol Data Units (PDUs) in the TCP/IP
Architecture
Protocol Data Units (PDUs) in the
TCP/IP Architecture
• TCP Header includes:
• Destination port
• Sequence number
• Checksum
• TCP hands each segment to IP to transmit it to host B
• Transmission must be done across multiple networks and routers
• Operation requires use of control information so IP appends a header
to each segment to form a IP datagram
TCP and UDP
• For most applications transport layer protocol is TCP
• TCP provides a reliable connection
• A connection is a temporary logical association between two entities
in different systems
• Logical connection refers to a pair of port values
TCP (Transmission
Control
Protocol) header
• TCP header is a minimum of
20 octets or 160 bits
• Checksum is a 16-bit frame
check sequence used to
detect errors
UDP (User Datagram Protocol) Header
• does not guarantee delivery, preservation of sequence, or
protection against duplication
• checksum is used to verify that no error occurs
IPv4 and IPv6
• The header includes 32-bit
source and destination
addresses
• The Protocol field indicates
which higher-layer protocol is
using IP
• The ID, Flags, and Fragment
Offset fields are used in the
fragmentation and
reassembly
IPv4 and IPv6
• IPv6 provides a number of
functional enhancements
over the existing IP
• IPv6 includes 128-bit source
and destination address fields
TCP/IP Applications
• Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) :
• email protocol used for sending email messages from one email account to
another via internet
• File Transfer Protocol (FTP) :
• communication protocol used for the transfer of computer files from a server
to a client on a computer network
• TELNET :
• an application protocol used to virtually access a computer
Protocol
Interfaces
• Each layer in the TCP/IP
protocol suite interacts
with its
immediate adjacent
layers
• Most applications
require a reliable end-to-
end protocol and
thus make use of TCP
OSI Architecture
• OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection
• developed by ISO – ‘International Organization for Standardization‘,
in the year 1984.
• 7 layer architecture with each layer having specific functionality to
perform
• 7 layers work collaboratively to transmit the data from one person to
another across the globe
Layers of OSI
Model
Physical Layer (Layer 1)
• lowest layer of the OSI reference model
• responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices
• contains information in the form of bits
• responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next
• While receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert
it into 0s and 1s and send them to the Data Link layer, which will put
the frame back together
Physical Layer (Layer 1)
• Functions of the Physical Layer:
• Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization
of the bits by providing a clock, which controls both sender and
receiver
• Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate
i.e. the number of bits sent per second
• Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies the way in which the
different, devices/nodes are arranged in a network
• Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines the way in which the
data flows between the two connected devices
Physical Layer (Layer 1)
• Transmission Modes
• Simplex Mode: the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way
street
• Example: Keyboard and traditional monitors.
• Half-Duplex Mode: each station can both transmit and receive, but
not at the same time
• Example: Walkie-talkie
• Full-Duplex Mode: both stations can transmit and receive
simultaneously
• Example: Telephone Network
Data Link Layer (DLL) (Layer 2)
• is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message
• main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free
from one node to another
• responsibility of DLL to transmit it to the Host using its MAC address

• packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames
depending on the frame size
• DLL encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address in the header
Data Link Layer (DLL) (Layer 2)
• Functions of the Data Link Layer:
• Framing: provides a way for a sender to transmit a set of bits that are
meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished by attaching
special bit patterns to the beginning and end of the frame
• Physical addressing: after creating frames, the Data link layer adds
physical addresses (MAC address) of the sender and/or receiver in the
header of each frame
• Error control: it detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
Data Link Layer (DLL) (Layer 2)
• Flow Control: the data rate must be constant on both sides else the
data may get corrupted thus, flow control coordinates the amount of
data that can be sent
• Access control: when a single communication channel is shared by
multiple devices, data link layer helps to determine which device has
control over the channel at a given time

• Packet in Data Link layer is referred to as Frame

• Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices
Network Layer (Layer 3)
• works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located
in different networks
• takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to
transmit the packet
• sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the
network layer
Network Layer (Layer 3)
• Functions of the Network Layer:
• Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is
suitable from source to destination
• Logical Addressing: In order to identify each device on internetwork
uniquely, the network layer defines an addressing scheme. The sender
& receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network
layer

• Segment in Network layer is referred to as Packet

Transport Layer (Layer 4)
• data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments
• responsible for the End to End Delivery of the complete message
• provides the acknowledgement of the successful data transmission and
re-transmits the data if an error is found
• At sender’s side
• receives the formatted data from the upper layers, performs Segmentation,
and also implements Flow & Error Control
• adds Source and Destination port numbers in its header and forwards to
network layer
• At receiver’s side
• performs sequencing and reassembling of the segmented data
Transport Layer (Layer 4)
• Functions of the Transport Layer:
• Segmentation and Reassembly:
• accepts the message from the session layer
• breaks the message into smaller units
• each of the segments produced has a header associated with it.
• Service Point Addressing:
• to deliver the message to the correct process, the transport layer header
includes a type of address called service point address or port address
Transport Layer (Layer 4)
• Services provided by the Transport Layer :
• Connection-Oriented Service (Reliable)
• is a three-phase process
– Connection Establishment
– Data Transfer
– Termination / disconnection
• Connectionless service (Not Reliable)
• the receiver does not acknowledge receipt of a packet
Session Layer (Layer 5)
• responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance of
sessions, authentication, and also ensures security

• Functions of the Session Layer:

• Session establishment, maintenance, and termination: The layer allows
the two processes to establish, use and terminate a connection
• Synchronization: add checkpoints which are considered synchronization
points into the data, synchronization points help to identify the error
• Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start
communication with each other in half-duplex or full-duplex
Presentation Layer (Layer 6)
• also called the Translation layer
• data from the application layer is extracted here and manipulated as
per the required format to transmit over the network

• Functions of the Presentation Layer:

• Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC
• Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into
another form or code
• Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be
transmitted
Application Layer (Layer 7)
• top layer of the OSI Reference Model
• is implemented by the network applications
• applications produce the data, which has to be transferred over the
network
• Example: Applications – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc

• Functions of the Application layer:

• Mail Services
• Directory Services