4

Sources and Types of
Error
Have you encountered measuring the length of
an object only to be confused when the length is
inconsistent upon remeasuring?
2
Experience has shown
that no measurement
is free from
uncertainty or errors.
3
There are numerous
factors that can affect
the result of your
measurement.
4
Identifying the uncertainty and evaluating its
source is important to correct and to address it.
This is essential especially in science where the

whole field is dependent on measurement.
5
What are the types of errors?
How can the smallest divisions
in a device affect and
contribute to it?
6
Errors in Measurement
Have you ever committed an error before?
7
Nobody’s perfect, and error is something inevitable in life.
8
In measurement, error signifies an inevitable

uncertainty that is present in all types of measurement.
9
It cannot be completely eliminated even if one is

conducting an experiment carefully.
10
However, it is still the main goal to reduce the number of

errors and to estimate or quantify the error present.
Two main types of errors

● systematic error
● random error
11
What is the difference between
a random error and a
systematic error?
12
Random Errors
Occur when repeated measurements produce randomly
different results.
13
Suppose you measure the diameter (d) of the apple.
d = 2.75 in
14
Suppose you measure d for two more times.
d1 = 2.75 in
d2 = 2.73 in
d3 = 2.77 in
15
Why are the values inconsistent? Where does the error

come from?
d1 = 2.75 in
d2 = 2.73 in
d3 = 2.77 in
16
Random errors are observed after repeated measurements.
d1 = 2.75 in
d2 = 2.73 in
d3 = 2.77 in
17
Random errors can be processed statistically using

arithmetic mean and standard deviation.
d1 = 2.75 in
d2 = 2.73 in
d3 = 2.77 in } 2.75 ± 0.2 in
18
Examples of Random Errors
● electrical noise in the circuit of an electrical instrument
● irregular changes in the heat loss rate of a solar panel

due to the changes in the wind
● resolution of the instrument
19
What are examples of random
errors?
20
Types of Scattering in Experiments
● fundamental noise
● technical noise
21
Experimental Noise
Suppose you are asked to launch a ball from a launcher.
22
Fundamental Noise
Can you control the behavior of the ball as it is launched
by the launcher?
23
Technical Noise
How does minute changes in the angle by which the ball
is launch affect your data?
24
Technical Noise
● A good experimenter tries his or her best to reduce
technical noise.
● However, if the fundamental noise is the main reason

why the data is scattered, it is suggested to change the
method of experiment or to change the measuring
device.
25
Systematic Error
Error that remains constant or changes in regular fashion
even if measurements are repeated.
It causes the measured values to veer away from the

accepted or predicted value.
26
Systematic Error
Suppose you have three apples, and you measured the
diameter of each.
Apple Diameter, d (in)
(observed)
1 2.75
2 2.73
3 2.77 27
Systematic Error
Compare the observed value and the true value.
Apple Diameter, d (in) Diameter, d (in)

(observed) (true)
1 2.75 2.77
2 2.73 2.75
3 2.77 2.79
28
Systematic Error
The measurements are off by 0.02 inches.

(observed) (true)
1 2.75 2.77
2 2.73 2.75
3 2.77 2.79
29
Systematic Error
All measurements have the same error, hence, the error
is systematic.

(observed) (true)
1 2.75 2.77
2 2.73 2.75
3 2.77 2.79 30
Systematic Error
Where do you think systematic errors arise?

(observed) (true)
1 2.75 2.77
2 2.73 2.75
3 2.77 2.79
31
Sources of Systematic Error
● faulty calibrations of instruments
● poorly maintained instruments
● incorrect reading by the user
32
Parallax error 33
Zero Error or Offset Error
0.004 0.000
There is an established Although the reading should
reading ... be zero.
34
Mistakes
● Mistakes are similar in nature to systematic errors and

are also difficult to detect.
● There are also no statistical techniques available to

quantify it.
35
Mistakes
Fortunately, it can be avoided and can be reduced by
being extra careful in any measurement activity.
writing
3.43 instead of
3.34
36
How can the least count
concept be used to estimate the
error in a measurement?
37
Least Count
Concept of Least Count

● The least count is the smallest division found on an
instrument.
● If you need a more precise measurement, use a

measuring device with finer gradations.
● The instrument limit of error is generally taken to be

the least count or some fraction of the least count.
38
Least Count
What is the length of the rod using the ruler below?
39
Least Count
How do you estimate least count in this scenario? How

do you assess the error in your measurement?
40
Least Count
What is the length of the rod using the ruler below?
41
Least Count
How do you estimate least count in this scenario? How

do you assess the error in your measurement?
42
There is no simple rule in estimating the
error of any measurement in an analog
device. There are instances when you
have to estimate it using your best
judgment, especially if the scale
divisions are significantly large.
43
Error Bars
Error bars are graphical representations

that indicate the range by which each point
probably lies in the graph.
Measurement A = 15 ± 1 ohms
Measurement B = 25 ± 2 ohms
44
Error Bars
Error bars are included to assess proportionality

between variables.
Suppose y (mass, in grams) is directly proportional to x

(distance, in centimeters).
45
Error Bars
Plotting y versus x produces a

scatter plot with a linear
trend.
The solid line represents the

best fit line.
46
Error Bars
Error bars are added to show

uncertainties in each data set.
The uncertainties in m, in this

case, is negligible compared
to the uncertainties in x.
47
Error Bars
Error bars are added to show

uncertainties in each data set.
The uncertainties in m, in this

case, is negligible compared
to the uncertainties in x.
48
Error Bars
What can you say about the

errors with respect to the
length of the error bars?
49
Error Bars
Do the range of the error bars

reach a portion of the best
fit line?
50
Error Bars
What can you say if your data

shows this kind of error?
51
Error Bars
In this set of data, what can

you infer about the
relationship between x and
m?
52
Error Bars
Crosses appear when uncertainties are present in both x and

y variables.
53
What are some techniques that
can be used to reduce errors in
measurement?
54
Write true if the statement is correct otherwise, write
false.
1. The use of calibrated instruments can reduce random
errors.
2. Limited precision of an instrument can be a source of

systematic error.
3. “Human error” or mistake is not a source of

experimental error. 55
● Error is defined as the difference between the
true value and the measured value.
○ Random errors occur when repeated
measurements produce varying results. It
influences the precision of the result.
○ Errors are categorized as systematic if it
remains constant or changes in a regular
fashion even if measurements are repeated.
56
● The least count is the smallest division found in a
measuring device.
● Error bars are graphical representations

indicating the range of uncertainty of a specific
value or data.
57
● Errors cannot be 100% eliminated in
measurement but there are techniques that can
be used to lessen its occurrence.
58
How will you describe the measured
value if an error bar is observed
below?
59

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Sources and Types of

This is essential especially in science where the

Have you ever committed an error before?

Nobody’s perfect, and error is something inevitable in life.

In measurement, error signifies an inevitable

It cannot be completely eliminated even if one is

However, it is still the main goal to reduce the number of

Two main types of errors

Suppose you measure the diameter (d) of the apple.

Suppose you measure d for two more times.

Why are the values inconsistent? Where does the error

Random errors are observed after repeated measurements.

Random errors can be processed statistically using

Examples of Random Errors

● electrical noise in the circuit of an electrical instrument

● irregular changes in the heat loss rate of a solar panel

● resolution of the instrument

Types of Scattering in Experiments

● However, if the fundamental noise is the main reason

It causes the measured values to veer away from the

Apple Diameter, d (in) Diameter, d (in)

Apple Diameter, d (in) Diameter, d (in)

Apple Diameter, d (in) Diameter, d (in)

Apple Diameter, d (in) Diameter, d (in)

Sources of Systematic Error

● faulty calibrations of instruments

● poorly maintained instruments

● incorrect reading by the user

Zero Error or Offset Error

● Mistakes are similar in nature to systematic errors and

● There are also no statistical techniques available to

Concept of Least Count

● If you need a more precise measurement, use a

● The instrument limit of error is generally taken to be

What is the length of the rod using the ruler below?

How do you estimate least count in this scenario? How

What is the length of the rod using the ruler below?

How do you estimate least count in this scenario? How

Error bars are graphical representations

Error bars are included to assess proportionality

Suppose y (mass, in grams) is directly proportional to x

Plotting y versus x produces a

The solid line represents the

Error bars are added to show

The uncertainties in m, in this

Error bars are added to show

The uncertainties in m, in this

What can you say about the

Do the range of the error bars

What can you say if your data

In this set of data, what can

Crosses appear when uncertainties are present in both x and

2. Limited precision of an instrument can be a source of

3. “Human error” or mistake is not a source of

● Error bars are graphical representations

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