YOU

SAY
WE
PAY
SIGMUND
FREUD
Agency
theory
(Milgram)
Realistic
Conflict
theory
(Sherif)
JACK
GREALISH
RAINE ET AL
(1997) – BRAIN
ABNORMALITI
ES IN
MURDERERS
SOCIAL IDENTITY
THEORY
(TAJFEL)
WORKING
MEMORY
MODEL
(BADDELEY)
MARK DRAKEFORD
 LEARNING
THEORIES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
• TO KNOW THE MAIN ASSUMPTIONS OF THE LEARNING APPROACH
• TO DESCRIBE CLASSICAL CONDITIONING AS A THEORY FOR
BEHAVIOUR
LEARNING THEORIES

1. Theories
2. Methods
3. Key Question
4. Practical
5. Issues and debates
NATURE VS NURTURE…

What do you think?

Is behaviour a result of our genes (nature) or our
environment (nurture)?

Come up with an argument to convince me.

IS BEHAVIOUR A RESULT OF OR GENES
(NATURE) OR OUR ENVIRONMENT (NURTURE)?

Nature Nurture
 THE LEARNING APPROACH

Do some research on behaviourism...

What do behaviourists believe about human behaviour?
“Tabula Rasa” (Locke)
 “Environmental determinism”
The importance of observable events in research?
What do behaviourists focus on?
The role of thoughts and emotions?
Page 4
workbook
• Tabula Rasa
• “Blank Slate”
• We are born “blank” and our environment shapes us.
• We are the sum of our learning experiences.

• Environmental determinism
• Personality and behaviour is determined by factors such as
parenting, schooling, culture, peers…
 FOCUS OF LEARNING THEORY

What do learning theorists focus on?

• Focuses on observable, objectively measurable behaviour.
• Behaviour can be understood in terms of stimulus-response
relationships.

• Emphasises the importance of nurture over nature

What is the role of thought and emotions in learning theory?
• Thoughts and emotions cannot be observed or measured objectively
so cannot be studied scientifically.
 The 3 theories are:

1. Classical conditioning
2. Operant conditioning Learning
3. Social learning theory approach

Social
Behaviourist
learning
approach
theory

Classical Operant
conditioning conditioning
 3 LEARNING THEORIES

The 3 theories are:

1. Classical Conditioning = learning through association

2. Operant Conditioning = learning through consequences

3. Social Learning Theory = learning through observation and imitation

 LEARNING THEORIES

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qG2SwE_6uVM

This is an overall summary of theories we study

Watch the clip and make notes (next page for Q’s)…
Video notes:
Summarise the Learning
Approach’s view on behaviour

Briefly describe what is meant

by ‘Classical Conditioning’

Briefly explain how ‘Operant

Conditioning ‘works

Identify features within the

‘Social Learning Theory’

At the moment, how useful do

you think these theories might
be and why?
 IO N
I AT
S OC
A S

Classical Conditioning
 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

• Classical conditioning is learning through association.

• Learning takes place when we come to associate two
stimuli with one another.
Classical conditioning = association

https://www.classhook.com/resources/1596-the-office-jim-classically-conditions-
dwight
What association is being made?
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Example;
When you hear your mum/dad getting the plates out of the cupboard - you
think dinner is ready and leave your bedroom! You associate the sound of
plates with food.

Can you think of any examples of learned associations?

Ever had food poisoning? Taking a dog on a walk

You may have associated that food The dog has associated his lead with
with being sick. going on a walk

This may put you off eating that food This makes the dog excited when you
again! go near his lead

A song you love? Scared of balloons?

You may have associated that song You may have associated a loud bang
with good memories. with balloons

This means you like listening to it This may make you afraid of being
around them
 WATCH THE VIDEO AND USE P215 TO COMPLETE
THE AMRC FOR PAVLOV’S STUDY

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NzBDScsHL44&ab_channe
l=YvoWueest
• Pavlov (1927)
Aim: To study salivation as a reflex response in dogs.
Method: Food was paired with the ticking of a metronome (and other neutral
stimuli). After a number of pairings, he tested to see whether the neutral
stimulus alone could trigger salivation.
Results: Dogs could be conditioned to salivate in response to a metronome if
it has been paired with food on about 20 occasions.
Conclusion: Salivation is a reflex response that dogs are born with, but
environmental stimuli can be conditioned to produce the salivation response,
e.g. the ticking of a metronome. This demonstrates classical conditioning –
learning through association.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING – KEY TERMS!

• Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

• Unconditioned response (UCR)
• Neutral stimulus (NS)
• Conditioned stimulus (CS)
• Conditioned response (CR)
 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

• Classical conditioning takes place when two stimuli are repeatedly paired
together;

• An unconditioned stimulus (something that triggers a natural response) with a

new neutral stimulus (something that would not normally trigger a response)
• We learn to associate the two stimuli and respond in a similar manner to both.

• This takes place in three parts…

 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Your cat anticipates being fed when you take

a can of food from the cupboard.

This can be explained by the process of

classical conditioning…
 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

• Before conditioning – the UCS triggers a reflex response such

as salivation or anxiety. This is called the unconditioned
response (UCR). An unrelated NS does not produce this
response.

UCS
UCR
 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

• During conditioning – the UCS and the NS are experienced

together. This is called pairing. The effect of pairing is greatest
when the NS occurs just before the UCS. Usually pairing has to
take place many times for conditioning to occur.

NS UCS UCR
 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

• After conditioning – following pairing, the NS produces the

same response as the UCS. The NS is now a conditioned
stimulus (CS) and the response to it is called a conditioned
response (CR).

CS CR
1. Before conditioning

UCS UCR

2. During conditioning

NS UCS UCR

3. After conditioning

CS CR
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
• Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
• Unconditioned response (UCR)
• Neutral stimulus (NS)
• Conditioned stimulus (CS)
• Conditioned response (CR)
Read the following
definitions (next page)
and write them in the
correct key terms box
in your workbook –
page 6
Something that triggers a natural reaction
Something that triggers a learnt
response; something we have been
conditioned to respond to.
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
Unconditioned response (UCR)
Neutral stimulus (NS)
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
Conditioned response (CR)

Something that would not normally

trigger a reaction
A response that has been learnt through
association
A response which is natural and does not
need to be learnt.
• Unconditioned stimulus Something that triggers a natural
reaction.
• Unconditioned response A response which is natural and does
not need to be learnt.
• Neutral Stimulus Something that would not normally
trigger a reaction.
• Conditioned stimulus Something that triggers a learnt
response; something we have been conditioned to
respond to.
• Conditioned response A response that has been learnt
through association.
Classical conditioning
Read the scenarios and
identify each of these

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

Unconditioned response (UCR)
Neutral stimulus (NS)
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
Conditioned response (CR)
 Unconditioned stimulus
1. At home, whenever someone
(UCS) At home, whenever someone
Unconditioned response flushes
flushesthethetoilet,
toilet,your shower
your shower
(UCR) becomesvery
becomes very hot,
hot, causing
causing youyou
Neutral stimulus (NS) to jump out of the way of the
to jump out of the way of the
Conditioned stimulus (CS) very hot water. As this
Conditioned very hot water. As this
1. Before conditioning response (CR) continues over time, you begin
Hot water (UCS) -> Jump out continues over time,
to jump back you begin
to avoid the very
(UCR) Toilet flushing (NS) -> No
response tohot
jump water
backwhenever
to avoid theyouvery
hear
2. During conditioning
Toilet flushing (NS) + Hot water
hotthe toilet
water being you
whenever flushed.
hear
(UCS)
Jump out (UCR) the toilet being flushed.
3. After conditioning
Toilet flushing (CS)
 Unconditioned stimulus
2.
(UCS) Walking home from
Unconditioned response
(UCR) college yourhome
Walking routefrom
takes
Neutral stimulus (NS) college
you pastyour route
a house takes
where
Conditioned stimulus (CS) you past a house where
Conditioned
Before conditioning response (CR) there is a large dog. It
1.
Loud noise (UCS) -> jump (UCR) there is a large dog. It
Dog (NS) -> No response barks
barksatatyou
youloudly
loudlywhich
which
2. During conditioning
Dog (NS) + loud noise (UCS) makes
makesyouyoujump.
jump.Now
Nowyou
Jump (UCR)
jump when you see a dog.
3. After conditioning you jump when you see a
Dog (CS)
Jump (CR) dog.
 Unconditioned stimulus
3.
(UCS)
Unconditioned response
(UCR) Lois and Laurence
Neutral stimulus (NS)
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
are brother and
Conditioned response (CR) sister. Every time
1. Before conditioning
Food (UCS) -> Hungry (UCR) they go into the
Kitchen (NS) -> No response

2. During conditioning
kitchen they get
Kitchen (NS) + food (UCS)
Hungry (UCR) hungry.
3. After conditioning
Kitchen (CS)
Hungry (CR)
 RECAP

association
Classical conditioning is learning through _______________
triggers a natural response
An unconditioned stimulus is something that ___________________
This reaction is called a unconditioned response
NS and the ______
During conditioning, the _____ UCSare paired together repeatedly
We then learn to respond in the same manner to both stimuli
CS which elicits a conditioned response.
So after conditioning, the NS is now the _____
 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Stimulus generalisation and discrimination

• In classical conditioning there is a tendency for the conditioned stimulus (CS) to produce the same behaviour
to a similar stimulus after the response has been conditioned. Using our first example, your cat may come
running to any tin being opened in the kitchen, not just cat food. Generalisation here suggests that the stimulus
triggering the reaction does not have to be the exact same one involved in the process of learning, but that the
more similar it is, the more likely it will be to produce a conditioned response.
• It is also possible that discrimination can occur, meaning that over a period of time, learning only occurs in
response to a specific stimulus. For example, that your cat may only respond to a can opening at a certain time
of day or your cat only responds to a tin of food but not a glass jar.
 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Extinction
• As the term extinction suggests, this is the removal (death) of behaviour. Thinking of our cat example, if the
conditioned stimulus (the sound of a can opening) is continually presented without any food being paired with
it, the cat will gradually learn to disassociate the two stimuli- and so will not salivate on hearing a can opening.
However, this association may not be entirely lost.
Spontaneous recovery
• If the tin is once again paired with the food following extinction, the cat will quickly learn to associate the
food with the tin. This accelerated form of learning is known as spontaneous recovery and means that
extinction is not the same thing as ‘unlearning’. While the response may disappear, it has certainly not been
eradicated.
Complete p8
GRAVE COMPLETE P7
GENERALISABILITY

 Pavlov’s studied dogs. Humans have a more significant cognitive and emotional
dimension.
 On the other hand, it has been possible to demonstrate classical conditioning humans and
other animals
In conclusion, it is likely that classical conditioning applies to all animals, including
humans.
RELIABILITY

 Good internal reliability (consistency of procedure): Pavlov used carefully

controlled/standardised procedures (e.g. sound-proofed lab).
 Good external reliability (consistency of findings): His findings have been replicated.
APPLICATIONS

Applications:
 Classical conditioning has been applied in treating drug and alcohol addictions,
treatments of phobias, for advertising & propaganda.
VALIDITY

 While demand characteristics are unlikely since the participants were dogs – good
internal validity.
 The setting wasn’t an everyday situation, so ecological validity is questionable.
In conclusion, because the was a lab experiment with a highly controlled procedure, it has
good reliability, but at the expense of ecological validity.
ETHICS:

 The dogs were subjected to surgical procedures which re-directed their salivary glands so
that the saliva could be collected.
In conclusion, considering there were significant benefits to the research, but the ethical
costs were also high …
APPLY WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT ABOUT CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
TO EXPLAIN (P7 IN BOOKLET)

Behaviour 1: Fear of dogs

Behaviour 2: Feeling sick when you can taste or smell bananas
 FEAR OF DOGS

Before conditioning:
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Unconditioned response (UCR)
(Loud noise/barking) (Fear)
Neutral stimulus (NS) No response
(Dog)

During conditioning:
Unconditioned Neutral Unconditioned
stimulus (UCS) stimulus (NS) response (UCR)
(Loud noise/barking) (Dog) (Fear)
After conditioning:
Conditioned stimulus (CS)Conditioned response (CR)
(Dog) (Fear)
 DISLIKING BANANAS

Before conditioning:
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Unconditioned response (UCR)
(Stomach bug) (Vomiting/Nausea)
Neutral stimulus (NS) No response
(Banana)

During conditioning:
Unconditioned Neutral Unconditioned
stimulus (UCS) stimulus (NS) response (UCR)
(Stomach bug) (Banana) (Vomiting/Nausea)
After conditioning:
Conditioned stimulus (CS)Conditioned response (CR)
(Banana) (Vomiting/Nausea)
 TO HELP US WITH EVALUATING THIS THEORY, WE ARE
FIRST GOING TO HAVE A LOOK AT TWO STUDIES…

1. Pavlov’ study (named study)

2. Watson and Rayner (classic study for
learning)
Watch Little Albert
video
LEARNING THEORY
CLASSIC STUDY
WATSON & RAYNOR (1920)
AIM

• To demonstrate how classical conditioning can explain how humans acquire phobia by
creating a fear response in a young child.
PROCEDURE

• Although only carried out on one participant (a healthy, 9 month old male infant called
‘Albert B’ or ‘Little Albert’) this is best described as an example of a laboratory
experiment.

• The procedure involved 3 phases: pre conditioning testing, conditioning trials and a post
conditioning test.
PRE CONDITIONING TESTING

• Albert’s responses to stimuli

including a white rat, a loud noise,
and a dog were noted.
• The only stimulus that upset Albert
was the loud noise. None of the
other stimuli upset him.
CONDITIONING TRIALS

• At 11 months old Albert is again presented with the white rat (no fear was noted – in fact
he would reach out and play with it)
• Every time he reaches for the rat a loud noise was made. (The loud noise was made by
striking a hammer against a steel bar behind Albert’s head).
• This process was repeated many times over several weeks.
• Watson and Rayner relocated the investigations to a lecture room, to measure the effect of
surroundings on Little Albert’s response.
THE END OF THE EXPERIMENT!

• At 31 days into the experiment, Little Albert was taken from the hospital by
his mother.
Before conditioning

Unconditioned stimulus Unconditioned response

(UCS) (UCR)
Sudden loud noise Fear

Neutral stimulus
Behavioural Response
(NS)
No relevant fear response
Rat

During conditioning

Unconditioned stimulus Neutral stimulus Unconditioned response

(UCS) (NS) (UCR)
Sudden loud noise Rat Fear

After conditioning

Conditioned stimulus Conditioned response (CR)

(CS) Fear
Rat
RESULTS

Pre conditioning trials

- Albert only showed
fear of the loud noise
but not to any of the
other stimuli.
RESULTS

• After the first trial Albert showed some distress.

• After the second trial he seemed suspicious of the rat.
• After the third trial he leaned away from the rat and started to cry.
RESULTS

7 weeks later, Albert cried in

response to a number of
similar stimuli such as the fur
collar of a coat and Santa’s
beard (generalisation).
CONCLUSION

• Watson & Raynor concluded that it is possible to produce a fear response (phobia) in a
human using the process of classical conditioning.
AFTER THE STUDY……..

• What happened to Little Albert?

• Watson wanted to desensitize and decondition him, but Albert left hospital so this did not
happen.
• “Little Albert" was a pseudonym for Douglas Merritte. The boy died on May 10, 1925 of
hydrocephalus.

Complete p10 and 11

EVALUATION P12
WATSON AND RAYNOR (1920)
GENERALISABILITY

 Study of a human infant so more generalizable than studies using dogs (e.g.
Pavlov) or pigeons (e.g. Skinner).
 Only one child who may not have been typical (brought up in hospital and may
have had ‘water on the brain’ from birth).
In conclusion...
although only one child was tested, subsequent research has shown that humans can
be classically conditioned.
RELIABILITY

 Because the procedure was well documented and even filmed, the study could be
replicated to see if the findings were reliable.
 On the other hand, because of the ethical issues, it is not really possible to
replicate this study.
In conclusion...
other studies have demonstrated classical conditioning in humans. Therefore, it’s
likely that a phobia can be classically conditioned.
APPLICATION

 Since phobias can be classically conditioned, they can be deconditioned using extinction -
pairing the phobic stimulus with a state of relaxation (see flooding and systematic
desensitisation).
 VALIDITY

 Good experimental validity – Little Albert unlikely to have been affected by demand characteristics.
Also, variables were controlled.
 Lacks ecological validity/mundane realism – phobias are caused not by people banging iron bars
behind them – doesn’t reflect learning in everyday life.
In conclusion...
perhaps phobias such as fear of dogs may come about from pairing a dog with being scared because
the dog has barked loudly.
 ETHICS

• Informed consent – Albert was too young to give informed consent. On the other
hand, his mother gave consent.
• Right to withdraw - he could not choose to withdraw. On the other, his mother could
and did withdraw him.
• Protection of participants – subjected to a procedure intended to cause distress (loud
noise), with the aim of producing a phobia. On the other hand, they intended to
decondition him.
In conclusion, it’s unlikely this study would be allowed today because it’s hard to
justify distress to such a young child.
 AO3: EVALUATION

• Consider the strengths and weaknesses of the

classical conditioning theory…
E
A
S
T
 Strengths and weaknesses
 EVIDENCE of classical conditioning

• Classical conditioning is supported by many studies conducted on both humans and animals.
• Pavlov demonstrated classical conditioning of salivation responses in his studies of dogs….
i.e….
*CA* However, a problem with using animals in research is that….
• Watson and Rayner (1920) demonstrated that a fear response could be conditioned in a
human baby... i.e. ….
• This is important as it is evidence supporting the existence in classical conditioning in
human and animal learning.
 Strengths and weaknesses
 APPLICATION of classical conditioning

• Classical conditioning has led to treatments of phobias e.g. systematic desensitisation which
replaces the association of fear with association of relaxation instead to counter condition a
learnt response
• Supported by Capafons who found that using this led to a reduction in fear to flying.
• However, the theory may only be credible in its application if behaviour is learnt. If it is not
learnt and is evolved (i.e. for survival) then a treatment based on associations would be poor.
 Strengths and weaknesses
 STRENGTHS + of classical conditioning
SHORTCOMINGS

• Research uses lab experiments. This controlled environment is not a

natural way to observe behaviour. The contrived and artificial nature
of such experiments questions the ecological validity of the findings
and the extent to which the theories can be applied to real-life
settings. We cannot be sure that we would learn via association in
day to day life.
 Strengths and weaknesses
 STRENGTHS + of classical conditioning
SHORTCOMINGS

• It is reductionist. Reducing behaviour to learning through association

greatly underestimates the role of biological factors, including genetic
differences, on behaviour. Any mental processes are not considered,
making the theory oversimplified.
*CA* That said, isolating complex behaviour allowed for research into
classical conditioning to be carried out such as Little Albert and this has
given scientific credibility to the theory.
 Strengths and weaknesses
 STRENGTHS + of classical conditioning
SHORTCOMINGS

• The role of individual differences is largely ignored e.g. some people

may be more easy to manipulated in terms of learning mechanisms.
 Strengths and weaknesses
 STRENGTHS + of classical conditioning
SHORTCOMINGS

• It is deterministic. Behaviours are said to be largely being governed

by environmental forces. If individuals are a product of their
environment, it suggests they cannot control their actions and in turn
cannot be responsible for them. Therefore reducing the role of free
will.
 Strengths and weaknesses
 ALTERNATIVE of classical conditioning

• A weakness is that it can only explain how a limited range of behaviours can be acquired.
• Classical conditioning only explains the acquisition of simple reflex responses like salivation
or anxiety. It cannot account for more complex chains of learned behaviour.
• For example, classical conditioning could explain how we come to fear dogs but not the
maintenance of this fear over time or the behaviours we learn to avoid encountering dogs.
• Therefore, classical conditioning is only a partial explanation.
 APPLYING KNOWLEDGE…

Exam Question:

Jodi attended a number of birthday parties when she was

younger. At all of the parties there was a clown who burst
a balloon which scared Jodi. Jodi is now fearful of clowns.
Using your knowledge of classical conditioning, explain
how Jodi developed a fear of clowns. (4)
 APPLYING KNOWLEDGE… Self-assess

Exam Question:
Using your knowledge of classical conditioning, explain how Jodi developed a fear of clowns. (4)

MODEL RESPONSE: The unconditioned stimulus (UCS) would be the bang

of the balloon and this would have caused fear which is the unconditioned
response (UCR) (1 mark). The neutral stimulus (NS) would be the clown
which would have not caused a fearful response until the parties (1 mark).
The pairing of the balloon burst and the clown at several parties lead to her
associating clowns and fear (1 mark). This resulted in the conditioned
stimulus (CS) of the clown causing a fear response (CR) (1 mark).
 TASK

• Create flashcards for the key terms of this theory – being

able to use these key terms in exams is VERY
IMPORTANT – you may also simply be asked to define
any of the key terms – you don’t want to lose silly marks
by not knowing definitions!
• Test yourself, quiz the people on your rows using your
flashcards
ISSUES AND DEBATES!

Turn to the back of your

workbook – make some notes –
how can the issues and debates
be applied to theory of classical
conditioning?
 LEARNING THEORIES

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qG2SwE_6uVM

This is an overall summary of theories we study

Watch the clip and make notes (next page for Q’s)…
Video notes:
Summarise the Learning
Approach’s view on
behaviour

Briefly describe what is

meant by ‘Classical
Conditioning’

Briefly explain how ‘Operant

Conditioning ‘works

Identify features within the

‘Social Learning Theory’

At the moment, how useful

do you think these theories
might be and why?
INDEPENDENT STUDY

More information about classical conditioning to read through:

https://www.verywellmind.com/classical-conditioning-2794859

With examples and definitions of key terms

INDEPENDENT STUDY
INDEPENDENT STUDY
INDEPENDENT STUDY
INDEPENDENT STUDY