CHAPTER 11

Soil: The Foundation for Land Ecosystems

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An introduction to soil and agriculture

Some farmers follow the five golden rules of the tropics
Keep soil covered Use minimal or no tillage Use mulch to provide nutrients to the soil Maximize biomass production Maximize biodiversity

Harvests have increased dramatically Farmer experimenters experiment and educate others, leading to sustainable agriculture

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The Russian desert

Southeastern Russia has undergone severe desertification
Stable rolling grasslands have become drifting sands

Deserts are growing by thousands of acres annually

Failed communist agricultural policies Plowing the thin soil for crops Grazing sheep with sharp hooves that broke the soil

The sand has buried over 25 towns Building barriers and planting vegetation help limit moving sand and reclaim degraded land
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Desertification in China

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Past neglect
90% of all food comes from land-based agriculture
Oceans and natural systems are being depleted

Protecting and nurturing soil is the cornerstone of food production and sustainability
But it has been overlooked repeatedly

The Greek, Roman, and Mayan empires collapsed

The result of decreased agricultural productivity Brought on by soil erosion

Plowing the prairie and drought caused the U.S. Dust Bowl

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Asking more of the land

Increased population pressures croplands and grazing lands to increase production
15% of Earths land was degraded in 1991

Now, land degradation is even worse

20% of cultivated land, 30% of forests, 10% of grasslands were degraded between 1981 and 2003

Soils are degraded by erosion, salt buildup, and other problems Future productivity is undermined

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A rich soil is much more than dirt

Soil: solid material of geological and biological origin Chemical, biological, and physical processes change soil
Giving it the ability to support plant growth

In productive soil, detritus feeders and decomposers constitute a biotic community

Facilitating the transfer of nutrients Creating a soil environment favorable to root growth

Productive topsoil involves dynamic interactions among organisms, detritus, and mineral particles of the soil
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Topsoil formation

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Soil formation

Animation: Soil Formatioin

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Soil characteristics
Most soils are hundreds of years old
They change very slowly

Soil science is at the heart of agriculture and forestry

Soil is classified by profile, structure, and type

Soil texture: relative proportions of each soil type

Parent material: mineral material of the soil Soil has its origin in the geological history of an area

Weathering: gradual physical and chemical breakdown of parent material

It may be impossible to tell what the parent material was
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Classification of soil
Soil separates: small fragments smaller than stones
Sand: particles from 2.0 to 0.063 mm Silt: particles range from 0.063 to 0.004 mm Clay: anything finer than 0.004 mm

Gravel, cobbles, boulders: particles larger than sand You can see the individual rock particles in sand Clay particles become suspended in water
Clay is gooey because particles slide around each other on a film of water

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Soil makeup

Animation: Soil Makeup

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Proportions
Sand, silt, and clay constitute the mineral part of soil If one type of particle predominates, the soil is sandy, silty, or clayey Loam: a soil with 40% sand, 40% silt, and 20% clay To determine a soils texture:
Add soil and water to a test tube and let the soil settle Sand particles settle first, then silt, then clay

Scientists classify soil texture with a triangle

It shows relative proportions of sand, silt, and clay
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The soil texture triangle

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Properties
Soil properties are influenced by its texture
Larger particles have larger spaces separating them Small particles have more surface area relative to their volume Nutrient ions and water molecules cling to surfaces

These properties profoundly affect soil properties

Infiltration, nutrient- and water-holding capacity, aeration

Workability: the ease with which soil can be cultivated

Clay soils are hard to work with: too sticky or too hard Sandy soils are easy to work with
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Soil profiles
Horizons: horizontal layers of soil from soil formation
Can be quite distinct

Soil profile: a vertical slice through the soil horizons

Reveals the interacting factors in soil formation

O horizon: topmost layer of soil

Dead organic matter (detritus) deposited by plants High in organic content Primary source of energy for the soil community

Humus: decomposed dark material at the bottom of the O horizon

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Subsurface layers
A horizon (topsoil): below the O horizon
A mixture of mineral soil and humus Permeated by fine roots Usually dark May be shallow or thick Vital to plant growth Grows an inch or two every hundred years

E horizon: pale-colored layer below the A horizon

Eluviation: process of leaching (dissolving) minerals due to downward movement of water

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Subsurface layers
B horizon (subsoil): below the E horizon
Contains minerals leached from the A and E horizons High in iron, aluminum, calcium, other minerals, clay Reddish or yellow colored from oxidized metals

C horizon: parent mineral material

Weathered rock, glacial deposits, volcanic ash Reveals geologic process that created the landscape Not affected by biological or chemical processes

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Soil profile

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Soil classification
Soil comes in an almost infinite variety of structures and textures Soils are classified by:
Order: the most inclusive group Suborder, groups, subgroups, families Class: best corresponds to the soil in question

Four major soil orders most important for agriculture, animal husbandry and forestry:
Mollisols, oxisols, alfisols, aridisols

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Global map of soil orders

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Important soil orders

Mollisols: fertile, dark soils of temperate grasslands
The worlds best agricultural soils Midwest U.S., Ukraine, Mongolia, Argentinian pampas Deep A horizon; rich in humus and minerals With less precipitation, minerals dont leach downward The B horizon has a layer of iron and aluminum oxides Little O horizon: rapid decomposition of vegetation Limited agriculture: minerals are in living plant matter Leached minerals form a hardpan, resisting cultivation

Oxisols: soils of tropical and subtropical rain forests

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Two more important soil orders

Alfisols: widespread, moderately weathered forest soils
Well-developed O, A, E, and B horizons Typical of moist, temperate forests Suitable for agriculture if they are fertilized

Aridisols: soils of drylands (arid, semiarid, and seasonally dry areas) and deserts
Unstructured due to lack of vegetation and precipitation Thin, light colored Some areas may support rangeland animal husbandry Irrigation leads to salinization
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Soil and plant growth

For best growth, plants need a root environment that supplies
Mineral nutrients, water, oxygen The proper pH and salinity

Soil fertility: the soils ability to support plant growth

The presence of proper amounts of nutrients and all other needs Farmers refer to a soils ability to support plant growth as tilth

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Mineral nutrients
Initially become available through rock weathering
Phosphate, potassium, calcium, etc. Much too slow to support normal plant growth Breakdown and release (recycling) of detritus provides most nutrients

Leaching: nutrients are washed from the soil by water

Decreases soil fertility Contributes to water pollution Nutrient-holding capacity: the soils capacity to bind and hold nutrient ions until they are absorbed by roots

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Fertilizer
Agriculture removes nutrients from the soil Fertilizer: nutrients added to replace those that are lost Organic fertilizer: plant or animal wastes or both
Manure, compost (rotted organic material) Leguminous fallow crops (alfalfa, clover) Food crops (lentils, peas)

Inorganic fertilizer: chemical formulations of nutrients

Lacks organic matter Much more prone to leaching
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Water is crucial for plants

Transpiration: water is absorbed by roots and exits as water vapor through pores (stomata; singular = stoma) in the leaves
Oxygen enters, and carbon dioxide exits, through stomata Loss of water through stomata can be dramatic

Wilting: a plants response to lack of water

Conserves water Shuts off photosynthesis by closing stomata Severe or prolonged wilting can kill plants
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Transpiration

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Water and water-holding capacity

Water is resupplied to the soil by rainfall or irrigation Infiltration: water soaks into the soil
Water runoff is useless to plants and may cause erosion

Water-holding capacity: soils ability to hold water after it infiltrates Poor holding capacity: water percolates below root level
Plants must depend on rains or irrigation Sandy soils

Evaporative water loss depletes soil of water

The O horizon reduces water loss by covering the soil
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Plant-soil-water relationship

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Aeration
Novice gardeners kill plants by overwatering (drowning)
Roots must breathe to obtain oxygen for energy

Land plants depend on loose, porous soil

Soil aeration: allows diffusion of oxygen into, and carbon dioxide out of, the soil Overwatering fills air spaces

Compaction: packing of the soil

Due to excessive foot or vehicular traffic Reduces infiltration and runoff Strongly influenced by soil texture
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Relative acidity (pH)

pH refers to the acidity or alkalinity of any solution The pH scale runs from 1 to 14
7 is neutral (neither acidic or alkaline)

Different plants are adapted to different pH ranges

Most do best with a pH near neutral

Many plants do better with acidic or alkaline soils

Blueberries do best in acidic soils

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Salt and water uptake

Buildup of salt in the soil makes it impossible for roots to take in water High enough salt levels can draw water out of a plant
By osmosis Dehydrates and kills plants

Only specially adapted plants grow in saline soils

None of them are crops

Irrigation can lead to salt buildup in soil (salinization)

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The soil community

To support plants, soils must
Have nutrients and good nutrient-holding capacity Allow infiltration and have good water-holding capacity Resist evaporative water loss Have a porous structure that allows aeration Have a near-neutral pH Have low salt content

According to the principle of limiting factors, the poorest attribute is the limiting factor

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Limiting factors in plant growth

Sandy soils dry out too quickly to be good for agriculture
They have poor water-holding capacity

Clay soils do not allow infiltration or aeration The best soils are silts and loams
They moderate limiting factors

Soil texture limitations are improved by the organic parts of the soil ecosystem
Detritus Soil organisms

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Organisms and organic matter in the soil

Dead leaves, roots, other detritus on and in the soil
Support a complex food web Bacteria, fungi, mites, insects, millipedes, spiders, earthworms, snails, slugs, moles, etc. Millions of bacteria are in a gram of soil

Humus: residue of partly decomposed organic matter

In high concentrations at the bottom of the O layer Extraordinary capacity for holding water and nutrients

Composting: fosters decay of organic wastes

Is essentially humus
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Soil as a detritus-based ecosystem

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Soil bacteria

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Soil structure and topsoil

Animals feeding on detritus also ingest mineral soil particles
Castings: earthworm excrement of stable clumps of glued inorganic particles plus humus Burrowing of animals keeps clumps loose

Soil structure: refers to the arrangement of soil particles

Soil texture: refers to the size of soil particles A loose soil structure: best for infiltration, aeration, and workability

Topsoil: clumpy, loose, humus-rich soil

Loss of topsoil reduces crop yield by 8590%
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Humus and the development of soil structure

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The results of removing topsoil

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Interactions between plants and soil biota

Mycorrhizae: a symbiotic relationship between the roots of some plants and certain fungi
Fungi draw nourishment from the roots Fungi penetrate the detritus, absorb nutrients, and pass them to the plant Nutrients are not lost to leaching

Bacteria add nitrogen to the soil Nematodes: small worms that feed on roots
Detrimental to plants May be controlled by other soil organisms (e.g., fungi)
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Predatory fungus

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Soil enrichment
Most detritus comes from green plants
So green plants support soil organisms

Soil organisms create the chemical and physical soil environment beneficial to plants Green plants further protect the soil by reducing erosion and evaporative water loss
So keep an organic mulch around garden vegetables

The mutually supportive relationship between plants and soil is easily broken
Keeping topsoil depends on addition of detritus
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Mineralization
If detritus is lost, soil organisms starve
Soil will no longer be kept loose and nutrient-rich

Humus decomposes, breaking down the clumpy aggregate structure of glued soil particles
Water- and nutrient-holding capacities, infiltration, and aeration decline

Mineralization: loss of humus and collapse of topsoil

All that remains are the minerals (sand, silt, clay)

Topsoil results from balancing detritus and humus additions and breakdown
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The importance of humus to topsoil

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Soil degradation
Turnover of plant material produces detritus
When humans cut forests, graze livestock, or plant crops, the soil is managed or mismanaged

Soil degradation: occurs when key soil attributes required for plant growth or other ecosystem services deteriorate Some reports on soil degradation are incorrect or outdated
75% of the land in Burkina Faso was said to be degraded But agricultural yields have increased due to soil and water conservation
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LADA
The Land Degradation Assessment in Drylands
Part of the UNs Food and Agricultural Organization

Land degradation: a reduction in the capacity of land to perform ecosystem functions and services that support society and development Hot spots: regions that are worsening
24% of global land area worsened between 1981 and 2003 South Africa: 29% of land is degraded Poor management

Bright spots: regions that are improving (16% of land area)

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Land degradation and population in South Africa

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Erosion
Erosion: the process of soil and humus particles being picked up and carried away by water and wind
Occurs any time soil is bared and exposed

Soil removal may be slow and gradual (e.g., by wind) or dramatic (e.g., gullies formed by a single storm) Vegetative cover prevents erosion from water
Reducing the energy of raindrops Allowing slow infiltration

Grass is excellent for erosion control Vegetation also slows wind velocity
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Splash, sheet, and gully erosion

Splash erosion: begins the process of erosion
Raindrops break up the clumpy structure of topsoil Dislodged particles wash between other aggregates Decreases infiltration and aeration

Sheet erosion: the result of decreased infiltration

More water runs off, carrying away fine particles

Gully erosion: water converges into rivulets and streams

Waters greater volume, velocity, energy remove soil

Once started, erosion can turn into a vicious cycle

Less vegetation exposes soil to more erosion
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Erosion

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Desert pavement
Another devastating feature of wind and water erosion: differential removal of soil particles
Lighter humus and clay are the first to be carried away Rocks, stones, coarse sand remain The remaining soil becomes coarser

Deserts are sandy because wind removes fine material Desert pavement: occurs in some deserts
Removal of fine material leaves a thin surface layer of stones and gravel This protective layer is easily damaged (e.g., by vehicles)
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Formation of desert pavement

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Cryptogamic crusts
Water erosion can change soil composition
Rainfall clogs soil Soil hardens when it dries Cryptograms (algae, lichens, mosses) grow

Growth of these plants causes a cryptogamic crust

It stabilizes soil It adds nutrients through nitrogen fixation It can inhibit infiltration and seed germination

These crusts are easily broken up by livestock, etc.

Loosened soil is subject to wind and water erosion
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Drylands and desertification

Clay and humus are the most important parts of soil
For nutrient- and water-holding capacity Their removal results in nutrients being removed

Regions with sparse rainfall or long dry seasons support grasses, scrub trees, and crops only if soils have good water- and nutrient-holding capacity
Erosion causes these areas to become deserts

Desertification: a permanent reduction in the productivity of arid, semiarid, and seasonally dry areas (drylands)
Does not mean advancing deserts
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Desertification

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Drylands
Desertification is a process of land degradation
Due to droughts, overgrazing, erosion, deforestation, overcultivation It is extremely serious because it is permanent

Dryland ecosystems cover 41% of Earths surface

They are defined by precipitation, not temperature They receive minimal rainfall Droughts are commonthey can last for years

Rainfall causes vegetation to return so drylands are not desertified

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Drylands in danger
1020% of drylands suffer some form of degradation
Inhabited by some of the worlds poorest

The UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)

Addresses funding projects to reverse degradation Bottom-up programs so people can help themselves Gathering and dissemination of traditional knowledge

TerrAfrica: UNCCD alliance to coordinate efforts to arrest degradation and promote sustainable management Humans pose the greatest threat to dryland ecosystems
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Causes of erosion: overcultivation

Plowing to grow crops exposes soil to wind and water erosion
Soil remains bare before planting and after harvest

Plowing causes splash erosion

Destroying soils aggregate structure Decreasing aeration and infiltration

Tractors compact soil

Reducing aeration and infiltration Increasing evaporative water loss and humus oxidation

Rotating cash crops with hay and clover is sustainable

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No-till planting
No-till agriculture: a technique allowing continuous cropping while minimizing erosion
Routinely practiced in the U.S.

After spraying a field with herbicide to kill weeds

A planting apparatus cuts a furrow through the mulch Drops seeds and fertilizer Closes the furrow

The waste from the previous crop becomes detritus

So the soil is never exposed

Low-till farming uses one pass (not 612) over a field

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Apparatus for no-till planting

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Inorganic fertilizer
Can provide optimal amounts of nutrients efficiently
But it lacks organic matter to support organisms and build soil structure

It can keep nutrient content high under intensive cultivation (two or more cash crops/year)
But mineralization and soil degradation proceed Additional fertilizer leaches into waterways

Chemical fertilizers have a valuable place in agriculture

Organic fertilizers may not have enough nutrients

Growers must use each fertilizer as necessary

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Reducing soil erosion

Contour strip cropping: plowing and cultivating at right angles to contour slopes
Shelterbelts: protective belts of trees and shrubs planted along plowed fields

The U.S. Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS)

Established in response to the Dust Bowl Regional offices provide information to farmers and others regarding soil and water conservation practices

U.S. soil erosion has decreased through conservation

Windbreaks, grassed waterways, vegetation to filter runoff
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Contour farming and shelterbelts

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Overgrazing
Livestock graze on grasslands and cleared forest slopes
65% of drylands are grasslands

Land is often overgrazed

Barren land is eroded and degraded

In the 1800s American buffalo (bison) were slaughtered

Rangelands stocked with cattle were overgrazed Leading to erosion and growth of unpalatable plants

U.S. western rangelands produce less than 50% of the forage they produced before commercial grazing
Yet 20% of rangelands remain overstocked
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Degraded rangelands
The National Public Lands Grazing Campaign documents harmful effects of livestock grazing
Competition of livestock with native animals for food One-third of endangered species are in danger due to cattle-raising practices (predator control, fire suppression) Wooded zones along streams are trampled and polluted Polluted streams make fish species the fastestdisappearing wildlife group

Desertification impacts 85% of North Americas drylands

The most widespread cause is livestock grazing
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Public lands
Overgrazing occurs because rangelands are public lands
Tragedy of the commons: the incentive is for all to keep grazing, even though the range is being overgrazed

The U.S. Bureau of Land Management (BLM) and Forest Service leases grazing rights on 2 million km2 of land
Federal land is owned by taxpayers Animal unit = one cow-calf pair or five sheep The grazing fee ($1.35/animal unit/month) is 10% what would be paid on private land
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Why are rangelands overgrazed?

The 1934 Taylor Grazing Act prohibits reducing grazing levels or keeps grazing fees below market level
The U.S. government lost $115 million in 2004 $500 million more was lost in ecological costs (to watersheds, streams, wildlife, endangered species)

When Congress and the BLM try to raise fees, western congressmen threaten to cut the BLM budget

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Solutions to overgrazing
Better management could restore rangelands
Benefiting wildlife and cattle production

Conservation Stewardship Program (NRCS)

Provides information and support to land-owning ranchers to burn woody plants, reseed land, rotate cattle

The government could buy up some of the 26,000 permits

Retire rangelands Generously pay ranchers for their permits Use the land for wildlife, recreation, watershed protection
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Deforestation
Porous, humus-rich forest soil efficiently holds and recycles nutrients
Also absorbs and holds water

Converting a forested hillside to grassland doubles the amount of runoff and increases nutrient leaching When forests are cut and soils are left exposed
Topsoil becomes saturated with water and slides off the slope Subsoil continues to erode

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Forests are cut at alarming rates

13 million hectares (32 million acres) are cut per year
Mostly in developing countries

Cutting tropical rain forests causes acute problems

Heavy rains have leached soils of minerals Parent material is already maximally weathered So tropical soils (oxisols) lack nutrients

Clearing rain forests washes away the thin layer of humus

Leaving only the nutrient-poor subsoil Very poor for agriculture

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The other end of the erosion problem

Water that does not infiltrate enters streams and rivers
Causing flooding

Sediment: eroded soil carried into streams and rivers

Clogs channels, intensifies floods, fills reservoirs Kills fish and coral reefs Damages streams, rivers, bays, estuaries

Excess sediments and nutrients from erosion are the greatest pollution problem in many areas Groundwater is depleted
Rainfall runs off and does not refill soil or ground water
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Irrigation
Irrigation: supplying water to croplands artificially
Dramatically increases production Is a major contributor to land degradation

Flood irrigation: river water flows into canals to flood fields Center-pivot irrigation: water is pumped from a well into a giant pivoting sprinkler The U.S. Bureau of Reclamation is involved with supplying irrigation water to the western states
Irrigating 4 million hectares (10 million acres)

Worldwide irrigation is huge and is still rising

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Flood irrigation

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Salinization
Salinization: the accumulation of salts in and on the soil
Suppresses plant growth

Even the freshest irrigation water has some salt

Watering dryland soils dissolves minerals in the soil Evaporation or transpiration leaves salts behind

Salinization is considered a form of desertification

1.5 million hectares (3.7 million acres) are lost each year to salinization and waterlogging 160,000 hectares (400,000 acres) in California are unproductive, costing $30 million/year
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Salinization

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Salinization can be avoided or reversed

Enough water must be used to leach salts downward
Insufficient drainage results in waterlogged soils Installing drainage pipes is expensive

Kesterson National Wildlife Refuge received drainage from selenium-enriched soils

Killing birds, fish, insects, and plants It was declared a toxic waste dump It has been drained and capped with soil

Over 14 other U.S. locations have toxic irrigation water

The Kesterson Effect
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Soil conservation
Healthy soils are essential for agricultural production
Human activities (overcultivation, overgrazing, deforestation) cause erosion

Sustainability means doing all we can to reduce erosion Soil conservation must be practiced at two levels
Individual landholders can best preserve soil through traditional knowledge and practices Public policies can lead to conservation or disaster

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Helping individual landholders

Individual landholders, farmers, and herders hold the key to sustainable soil stewardship They must be convinced that conservation will work
That it is affordable and will help them in the long run

Small, realistic steps must be taken

Microloans, advice, and encouragement

Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development Initiative (SARD) coordinates efforts to reach small farmers
Farmers organize and adopt sustainable practices These practices can be used in other similar situations
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The Keita Project

Niger is one of the hottest countries in the world
Part is in the Sahel, a semiarid grassland

In 1982 the Italian government started an antierosion project in the Keita district, which has 230,000 people
Dams were built to catch summer rains 18 million trees were planted Rock dams stopped sheet erosion Local people (especially women) worked

The Keita district is now a flourishing place for crops

Desertification has been halted
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Land in the Keita district of Niger

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Two paradigms
Desertification is happening in many areas
Leading to permanent damage, poverty, and misery Human factors: population growth, immigration, unjust land tenure, cash crops Erosion from overgrazing and overcultivation is made worse by drought and climate change

Desertification is not inevitable: another option is to recognize degradation and take corrective measures
Better management, soil and water conservation, diversifying income to relieve pressure on the land
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Public policy and soils

Original U.S. farm policy: increasing production
This goal was achieved

The federal government supports agriculture through subsidies

Farm policy emphasizes income and farm commodities Farmers are guaranteed price levels for grains, cotton, sugar, peanuts, dairy products, soybeans, etc.

Subsidies cost taxpayers $11 billion in 2009

Crop insurance and loans added $10 billion more Subsidies occurred in spite of record income
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Subsidies hurt the environment

They encourage excessive use of pesticides and fertilizers They reduce crop rotation by locking farmers into annual crop support subsidies They encourage aquifer drawdown
For irrigation

Subsidies undercut objectives of soil conservation

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Goals of sustainable agriculture

Maintain productive topsoil Keep food safe and wholesome Reduce chemical fertilizers and pesticides Keep farms economically viable Sustainable options mimic past practices
Contouring, crop rotation, terracing, little or no chemicals

The U.S. Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education program (SARE) (1988)
Provides $512 million/year for building and disseminating knowledge about sustainable agriculture
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Farm legislation
Federal Agricultural Improvement and Reform Act (FAIR) (1996) reduced subsidies and controls
Farmers had greater flexibility over what to plant

Declining prices prompted farm aid packages, which maintained subsidies and controls 2002 Farm Security and Rural Investment Act subsidized farm products and kept price supports and farm income The Food, Conservation and Energy Act of 2008 kept high subsidies and encouraged farmers to plow grasslands
But it does have programs to conserve soil and wetlands
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Conservation programs
The Conservation Reserve Program (CRP; 1985)
Farmers are paid $125/hectare ($50/acre) per year Highly erodible land is put into forest or grass In 2008, 14 million hectares (34.7 million acres) were enrolled, saving 454 million tons of topsoil from erosion/year The 2009 acreage was reduced to 32 million acres

Conservation activities now receive $5 billion/year

Wildlife Habitat Incentives Program (WHIP) Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP)
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Other farmland conservation programs

The 2002 Conservation Security Program (CSP)
Encourages stewardship of farms, forests, watersheds Renamed the Conservation Stewardship Program in the 2008 farm bill $1 billion to enroll 12 million acres of farmland

Farmers and ranchers should have incentives to protect soil

Productivity would increase

The most significant obstacle to soil conservation

A lack of knowledge about what conservation can do Particularly in developing countries
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CHAPTER 11

Soil: The Foundation for Land Ecosystems

Active Lecture Questions

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Review Question-1

The process of soil formation creates a vertical gradient of layers that are known as a. loam. b. aeration. c. infiltration. d. horizons.

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Review Question-1 Answer

The process of soil formation creates a vertical gradient of layers that are known as a. loam. b. aeration. c. infiltration. d. horizons.

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Review Question-2

The residue of partly decomposed organic matter is called ______ and is found in high concentrations at the bottom of the O horizon.

a. desertification b. decomposition c. humus d. topsoil

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Review Question-2 Answer

The residue of partly decomposed organic matter is called ______ and is found in high concentrations at the bottom of the O horizon.

a. desertification b. decomposition c. humus d. topsoil

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Review Question-3

Mineralized soils can be revitalized through the addition of a. compost and other organic matter. b. materials from the C horizon. c. topsoil. d. all of the above.

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Review Question-3 Answer

Mineralized soils can be revitalized through the addition of a. compost and other organic matter. b. materials from the C horizon. c. topsoil. d. all of the above.

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Review Question-4

All of the following lead to the loss of soil except a. splash erosion. b. horizon erosion. c. sheet erosion. d. gully erosion.

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Review Question-4 Answer

All of the following lead to the loss of soil except a. splash erosion. b. horizon erosion. c. sheet erosion. d. gully erosion.

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Review Question-5

______ occurs when there is an accumulation of salts in soil as a result of ______. a. The tragedy of the commons; overgrazing b. Deforestation; logging c. Salinization; irrigation d. Overcultivation; no-till farming

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Review Question-5 Answer

______ occurs when there is an accumulation of salts in soil as a result of ______. a. The tragedy of the commons; overgrazing b. Deforestation; logging c. Salinization; irrigation d. Overcultivation; no-till farming

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Interpreting Graphs and Data-1

According to Fig. 11-3, soil with roughly 40% sand, 40% silt, and 20% clay is called a. loam. b. silt loam. c. sandy clay loam. d. loamy sand.

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Interpreting Graphs and Data-1 Answer

According to Fig. 11-3, soil with roughly 40% sand, 40% silt, and 20% clay is called a. loam. b. silt loam. c. sandy clay loam. d. loamy sand.

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Interpreting Graphs and Data-2

According to Fig. 11-2, when detritus, mineral particles, and the detritus food web interact, they form

a. leaves, stems, flowers, and seeds. b. leached minerals. c. nitrogen fixation. d. topsoil.
2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Interpreting Graphs and Data-2 Answer

According to Fig. 11-2, when detritus, mineral particles, and the detritus food web interact, they form

a. leaves, stems, flowers, and seeds. b. leached minerals. c. nitrogen fixation. d. topsoil.
2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Thinking Environmentally-1

The human activities that lead to erosion and desertification are a. overcultivation, overgrazing, and deforestation. b. sustainability, stewardship, and sound science. c. pollution, overcultivation, and sustainability. d. overgrazing, sound science, and hypotheses.

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Thinking Environmentally-1 Answer

The human activities that lead to erosion and desertification are a. overcultivation, overgrazing, and deforestation. b. sustainability, stewardship, and sound science. c. pollution, overcultivation, and sustainability. d. overgrazing, sound science, and hypotheses.

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Thinking Environmentally-2

True or False: If soil conservation is to be successful, it must be practiced on the levels of both the individual landowner and public policy.

a. True b. False

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Thinking Environmentally-2 Answer

True or False: If soil conservation is to be successful, it must be practiced on the levels of both the individual landowner and public policy.

a. True b. False

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.