Lecture No.

Methods of Point Fixation

Why these methods?

to locate, define/Identifying any point on the earth with unique 2D or 3D coordinates (x, y) or (x,y,z)

Dr. S.D Mayunga 1

 Methods of Point Fixation
There are 4 methods commonly used for point fixation:

1) Traversing

2) Triangulation

3) Trilateration

4) Resection

Dr. S.D Mayunga 2

 1) Traverse
Definitions
Traverse

Is a series of connected lines whose bearing and distances are

known

Traversing:

It is the process whereby bearing and distances (E, N) between

points of connected lines are determined by measuring
horizontal angles & distances.
Dr. S.D Mayunga 3
 Traverse
Example of a traverse.
Known Parameters:
a (a) Coordinates of known control points
C CD

A, B, C and D
N D
Unknown parameters to be
V
a
VC determined:
(a) Bearings / Directions of:
a a
and
AB UV

U (b) Distances from B to U, U to V, V to C

A
a
BU
(c ) Angles ABU, BUV, UVC and VCD
B
Dr. S.D Mayunga 4
 Traversing

qC
C

qV
V

qU
U
qB
A

B
Figure 1 - TraversingDr. S.D Mayunga 5
 Traversing
In the field, the following activities are carried out:

1) Establishment and marking of traverse stations

2) Clearing of lines (now not necessary if GNSS is used)

3) Measuring of distances between stations

4) Observing angles between traverse lines

Dr. S.D Mayunga 6

 Types of Traverses

There are three main types of traverses:

1) Closed traverse

2) Loop traverse

3) Open traverse

Dr. S.D Mayunga 7

1) Closed Traverse
Illustration:
 It is a closed traverse because it is controlled by for (4) known
control points
C

qV
V

Controlled by known
qU points A, B, C and D
U
qB
A

B
r. S.D Mayunga
Dr. S.D Mayunga 8
 Types of Traverses
1) Closed Traverse

Illustration:

 It Starts from a known control points with orientation to

another known control point, then it goes through other series
of connected points and closes back at the starting points.

 Errors (angular and linear) within the traverse route can be

easily detected and will not penetrate beyond the 4 control
points (A, B, C and D). Dr. S.D Mayunga 9
 Types of Traverses
Diagram/Sketch showing a Closed Traverse
D
B
3
1 5
A 2 T2 4
S1 S3 C
S2 S4
T1 T3
Illustration:
(a) Known control points with their coordinates: A, B, C & D;
(b) Known bearings: AB & CD (given by their E, N or x, y);
(c) Distances and to be measured
(d) Angles and to be measured Dr. S.D Mayunga 10
 Types of Traverses
2) Loop Traverse

 Starts from a known control point with orientation to

another known control point, and then it goes through a
series of connected lines and closes back on a the same
starting point.

 Errors (angular and linear) within the traverse route cannot

easily be detected as it closes at the same two control points

Dr. S.D Mayunga 11

 Types of Traverses
Diagram/Sketch showing a Loop Traverse
S12 q3
q2 2
1 S23
A SB1
3 q4
q1
S34
Illustration: B q5
1) Known control points are: A & B

2) The Bearing of control points A to B is known

3) Angles and are Measured
4) Distances SB1, S12, S23, and S34 are Measured
Dr. S.D Mayunga 12
 Types of Traverses
3) Open Traverse

Open traverses are classified into two types;

1) It is a Traverse which starts at a known control points and end at unknown

control point

(a) Errors (angular and linear) within the traverse route cannot easily
be detected.

2) Traverse start at unknown control point and end at unknown

control point.

(a) Errors (angular and linear) within the

Dr. S.D traverse route cannot be easily
Mayunga 13
detected
 Types of Traverses
1) Diagram showing 1st type of an Open Traverse
A

1 3
Traverse not accurate
B 2 2
4 C
S1 S2 S3 S4
1 3
Illustration:
a) Coordinates of points A, B are known
b) Bearing of line AB is known
c) Angles andMeasured
b) Distances and Measured
Dr. S.D Mayunga 14
 Types of Traverses
2) Diagram showing the 2nd type of open traverse

1 3
Traverse not accurate
F
B 2 D
4
S1 S2 S3 S4
C E

Illustration:
a) Points A and B are unknown points
a) Angles andMeasured
b) Distances and Measured

Dr. S.D Mayunga 15

 Types of Traverses
Practical Guidelinesof a Traverse:

1) The purpose of a traverse should be known

(a) for control extension ?

(b) for deformation monitoring of underground mine?

(c ) for geological survey?

(d) for topographic survey?

(e) for property boundary survey?

Dr. S.D Mayunga 16
(f) for road construction ?
Reconnaissance, Planning and Designing of Traverse

The purpose of the traverse will dictates:

i) The type of traverse to be executed

ii) The accuracy of the traverse to be achieved

iii) The instruments to be used

Dr. S.D Mayunga 17

 Types of Traverses

2) Reconnaissance

(a) Searching of documents (i.e coordinates, field diagrams

etc)

(b) Field visit and inspection to understand the nature of the

terrain.

(c ) Determine the type of a traverse and the instruments to

be used

Dr. S.D Mayunga 18

 Types of Traverses

3) Planning of a traverse:

(a) Datum points to be used must be identified and checked

to be in situ before planning the traverse route.

(b) Traverse legs should be approximately equal in length to

minimize linear and angular errors

(c) The traverse should run as close as possible to features of

interest

Dr. S.D Mayunga 19

 Types of Traverses

(d) Station must be placed on stable ground and

permanently marked, e.g. IPC or beacon

(e) Traverse stations must be inter visible

(f) Rays or traverse lines should not be close to a wall or

ground
Dr. S.D Mayunga 20
Methods of point Fixation

2) Triangulation

Dr. S.D Mayunga 21

 Triangulation
Triangulation

 It is a series of connected triangles in which a base line

and angles are measured

 All sides of the triangles are calculated from measures

angles

Dr. S.D Mayunga 22

 Triangulation
Note that:

 Triangulation points are established so that other surveys can

be conveniently and accurately based/tied on.

 Higher accuracy triangulation network are used to tie lower

accuracy triangulation networks.

 Property surveys, construction projects, route surveys,

topographic and hydrographic surveys and other surveys may
be executed from triangulation network.

Dr. S.D Mayunga 23

 Triangulation
Applications of Triangulation:

(a) For establishment of control points for plane and geodetic

survey of large areas

(b) For establishment of control points for photogrammetric

applications

(c) To facilitate setting out of engineering works such as fixing

center lines of roads, shafts for long tunnels and
determination of deformations of structures.

Dr. S.D Mayunga 24

 Triangulation

(d) Study of small crustal movements in areas of seismic activity

(e) Determination of the shape of the earth

i) Since it covers a large area, the effect of earth’s

curvature is to be considered.

ii) The triangulation stations should be 16km-to-150km

apart

ii) Baseline distance (known point to known point)

be 8km- to-12km.
Dr. S.D Mayunga 25
 Triangulation

Classification of Triangulation:

Triangulation networks are classified based on two aspects:

(a) accuracies required and

(b) the application of the control points.

Dr. S.D Mayunga 26

 Triangulation

There are three types of triangulation:

1) First-order(primary) triangulation

Illustration:

 It is the highest accuracy triangulation

 It is used to develop the National network of horizontal and

vertical control points

 Angular error be from 0.5” to 1”

Dr. S.D Mayunga 27
 Triangulation

2) Second order (secondary) triangulation provides points at

greater density than first order triangulation.

Illustration:

 This network is adjusted to fit its parent primary triangle or

its surrounding primary control.
 Less refinement is needed as the network is surrounded by
the first order triangulation.
 The triangulation station can be 10km-to-25km
 Baseline length of 2km- to-5km.
 The average angular triangulation error can be up to 3’’
Dr. S.D Mayunga 28
 Triangulation
3) Third order (tertiary)

Illustration:

 Used to establish control points for engineering applications

 Length of base line can be from 100m-to-500m with side

length of 2km to 10km.

 Allowable average triangulation error is up to 12”

Dr. S.D Mayunga 29

 Triangulation
There are two commonly used triangulation configurations:

(a) Double chain triangulation

Application:

Double chain triangles are

used for covering larger area
(mapping large areas)

Double chain triangles

Dr. S.D Mayunga 30
 Triangulation
(b) Braced triangles
Characteristic/Application:

(a) Commonly used configuration

to extend control points.

(b) It is considered to be the

strongest network
configuration

(c) Distances from triangles are

computed from different
Braced triangles combinations

Dr. S.D Mayunga 31

 Triangulation
Selection of triangles

1. Sides of the triangles (three sides, three vertices, and three

angles) should be preferably equilateral (sides have same
length).

2. Braced quadrilaterals (four straight sides) should be

approximate squares.

3. should not be less than 45°, and in the case of quadrilaterals,

(4 sides) no angle should be less than 30°

Dr. S.D Mayunga 32

 Triangulation
Practical Procedure of Triangulation:

1. Reconnaissance: - selection of the most visible points for the

station.

2. Evaluate the strength of triangles

3. Erect beacons on triangulation points

4. Measure the base line

Dr. S.D Mayunga 33

 Triangulation

5) Measure angles and distances.

6) Compute the distances and coordinates for all stations.

7) Adjust the triangulation network and determine the best

estimates of co-ordinates of all points.

Dr. S.D Mayunga 34

 Triangulation
Criteria for selection of triangulation stations

1) Triangulation stations should be intervisible (not necessary

with GPS).

2) Stations should be easily accessible with instruments.

3) Station should form well-conditioned triangles. Angles less

than 30 degrees and not more than 120 degrees.

4) Stations should be useful for providing intersected points

and also for detail survey.
Dr. S.D Mayunga 35
 Triangulation

Adjustment of Triangulation Networks

The triangulation network should be adjusted as follows:

a) All baselines have to be adjusted for systematic errors

b) Observed directions and angles should be adjusted to

reduced to obtain average values

c) Use available software to adjust triangulation

Dr. S.D Mayunga 36

 Triangulation
Triangulation figures and arrangements

Example of third order triangulation:

D
h g
f C
e
a
A b

c d
B

Diagram not to scale

Dr. S.D Mayunga 37

 Triangulation
In triangle ABC ,
BC = AB

In triangle BCD
CD = BC

In triangle CDA
DA = CD

Dr. S.D Mayunga 38

 Triangulation
Exercise:

Given:
Angles:
a= b=
c= d=
e= f=
g= h=
Distance AB=1192.9m
Required:
Compute the distance of all Dr.sides
S.D Mayunga 39
 From triangle ABC
Example 2 of triangulation ==
c
A B
𝜃𝐴 a=
𝜃𝐵 𝛽
𝛼 b=
b
a a=

o b=

𝜃
𝜃 𝜃
D C
d
Dr. S.D Mayunga 40
From triangle DAC and DBC

c
A
𝜃𝐴
B =
𝜃𝐵 𝛽
𝛼 =
b
a Sin
o

𝜃 Sin
𝛾 𝜃
D C
d
Dr. S.D Mayunga 41
 From triangle DAC and DBC
Example 3 of triangulation
c
A
𝜃𝐴 𝜃𝐵
B When the total station is
𝛽 positioned at point D
𝛼
b e
+ e sin brg (DA+
a
o
+ e cos brg (DA+
𝜃
𝛾 𝜃
𝜇 C
D
d
Dr. S.D Mayunga 42
 3) Resection

OR commonly known as: “The Three-Point Problem

(TPP)”

It is a process to determine the position of unknown point by

observing angles from three points whose positions (x, y, z)
are known.

Dr. S.D Mayunga 43

 Resection
N direction

𝜃
𝜃

The coordinated of points A, B and C are known

Required to: determine the 2D coordinates of point P(x,y)

Dr. S.D Mayunga 44
 Resection

Dr. S.D Mayunga 45

 Resection
 In order to determine the position of point P, a minimum
of two lines from P to the stations A,B, and C must be
known

Example:

Let the bearing of a line from point P to A is known. the

position of P can be computed using the following
expressions:

Dr. S.D Mayunga 46

 Resection
=

=
Dr. S.D Mayunga 47
 Resection
Where:

 , , , are slopes of the lines through A, B, and C, which can be

written in terms of the cotangent of the azimuths using

, =cot(-, =cot(--

Dr. S.D Mayunga 48

 Resection
Resection Exercise:

Given:
XA := 1000.00 YA := 5300.00
XB := 3100.00 YB := 5000.00
XC := 2200.00 YC := 6300.00

:= :=

Required to:
Compute the coordinates of point P

Dr. S.D Mayunga 49

 4) Trilateration

 Trilateration

It is a method used to compute angles from measured

distances.

i.e
Measure all distances on the triangles and compute all
angles.

Dr. S.D Mayunga 50

 Trilateration

 Trilateration

C E

Ba
s eli
ne

D
B
Dr. S.D Mayunga 51
 Trilateration
Computations

 Using sine rule

== or = =

 Using Cosine rule =100m

= + -2 cos or cos=

 cos= =100m, =120m =120m

 Compute angle,
 cos= ,,

Dr. S.D Mayunga 52

 Trilateration

Computations of angles:

 cos=

 cos=

 cos=

Dr. S.D Mayunga 53

 Trilateration
Trilateration

i) Is an accurate and precise method used in control

extension

ii) Adjustment is done and the adjusted coordinates of points

are determined

Dr. S.D Mayunga 54

 Trilateration
 Comparison between Trilateration and Triangulation

Triangulation Trilateration
1. All angles are measured 1. All sides are measured
2. Distance of baseline is 2. Azimuth of baseline is
measured measured
3. Checks are made to control 3. Intervisibility not
scale necessary
4. More internal checks 4. Less internal checks
5. Intervisibility not necessary 5. Angles are computed

Dr. S.D Mayunga 55