Lecture 7 Levelling 29.3.2023 Final

Lecture 7
Key Issues:
1) Computation of Reduced Levels

(a) Rise and fall Method
(b) Height of Instrument Method
2) Comparison of Levelling Methods

(a) Advantages and disadvantages of Rise and Fall method
(b) Advantages and disadvantages of Rise and Fall method
3) Sources of Errors in Levelling and Mitigation measures

Mayunga, S.D 1
Computation of Reduced Levels (RLs)
Using Rise and Fall method
Back sight and Fore Sight readings are used to

determine the reduced levels (RL’s) of different
points on earth surface.
Mayunga, S.D 2
Conditions of Rise and Fall method
1) If BS > FS, This implies there is a rise of slope
2) If BS < FS, This implies there is a fall of slope
Mayunga, S.D 3
Arithmetic Check of Rise and Fall Method
1) ∑BS - ∑FS = ∑Rises - ∑Falls = Last Initial RL – First RL
Mayunga, S.D 4
Rise and Fall Levelling Booking Sheet
POINT NO. BS IS FS RISE FALL ADJ. RL REMARKS
Figure below shows the level readings at points A, B, C, D, E, F and G. In the levelling
route, points B, C and E are considered to be Intermediate Site (IS) points.
Required:
i) Enter the observed values in a levelling booking sheet
ii) Calculate the Reduced Levels (RL) of points B, C, D, E and F using “Rise and Fall
G
Methods.
E F
B D 1.752 3.824
C
A
3.019 2.513 2.811
2.191 2.505 2.325 1.496
BM G
BM A
48.704m
49.873m
Mayunga, S.D 6
Example 1: Rise and Fall Method
Station BS IS FS RISE (+) FALL (-) R.L Rema
rks
A 2.191 49.873 (1st RL) BM
B 2.505 0.314 49.559
C 2.325 1.180 49.739
D 3.019 1.496 0.829 50.568
E 2.513 0.506 51.074
F 1.752 2.811 0.298 50.776
G 3.824 2.072 48.704 (2nd RL)
SUM 6.962 8.131 2.515 2.684
∑BS –∑FS = -0.169 ∑RISE – ∑FALL = -0.169 1st RL – 2nd RL = -1.169
To check for errors:

∑BS - ∑FS = ∑Rises - ∑Falls = Last Initial RL – First
RL
Mayunga, S.D 7
Rise and Fall Method
Example 2 :
Station BS IS FS Rise Fall R.L Remar
ks
1 2.228 432.384 m BM
2 1.606 0.622 433.006
3 2.090 0.988 0.618 433.624 CP
4 2.864 0.774 432.850
5 0.602 1.262 1.602 434.452
6 1.044 1.982 1.380 433.072
7 2.684 1.640 431.432 m
Sum 5.964 6.916
5.964-6.916 = - 431.432-432.384=-
0.952 Mayunga, S.D 0.952 8
Rise and Fall Method
Example 3 :
Station BS IS FS RISE FALL R.L Remar
ks
A 0.565 15.575 BM
B 1.250 0.685 14.890
C 1.675 0.425 14.460
D 0.125 3.695 2.020 12.440
E 2.345 2.220 10.220
F 1.785 0.500 1.845 12.065
G 2.535 0.75 11.315
Sum 2.470 6.730 LRL-FRL = 15.575 – 11.315 =4.260
Sum BS – Sum FS = -4.260
Mayunga, S.D 9
Methods of Leveling
Question: Table below shows an incomplete levelling
booking sheet of levels in which X indicates the missing
level entries.
Required to:
i) Calculate the missing RLs of points using Rise and
Fall Method
ii) Apply mathematical model to validate the computed
values.
Mayunga, S.D 10
Missing Level Readings
Example 4:
Station BS IS FS RISE FALL R.L Remar
ks
A 2.560 100.000 BM
B 3.540 X X
C 3.200 X X
D 2.430 X X
E 1.950 X 1.080 X CP1
F 2.440 X X
G 3.465 X X
Mayunga, S.D 11
Computing Missing Level Readings
Solution of Example 4 :
Station BS IS FS RISE FALL R.L Rema
rks
A 2.560 100.000 BM
B 3.540 0.980 99.02
C 3.200 0.340 99.36
D 2.430 0.860 100.22
E 1.950 1.260 1.080 101.30 CP1
F 2.440 0.490 101.81
G 3.465 1.02 99.79
SUM 4.51 4.72 2.28 2.49
SUM BS – SUM FS SUM RISE – SUM LLR – FRL =- 0.21

= -0.21 FAL =Mayunga,
-0.21S.D 12
Using Height of Instrument Method
Back sight and Fore Sight readings are used to

determine the reduced levels (RL’s) of different
points on earth surface.
Mayunga, S.D 13
2) Height of Instrument Method
Concept of HI method:
1) Height of Instrument is the method whereby the
height of the automatic level is measured from the
DATUM LINE to the line of Collimation.
2) Line of Collimation is the horizontal line of sight of
the telescope of an automatic level, through which
the rear nodal point of the objective lens of the
telescope and the center of the reticle are
perfectly aligned.
Horizontal Line of sight
3.824
Mayunga, S.D 14
Clarification:
Line of Collimation
Line of Collimation
Line of Collimation
HI HI
HI
DATUM
Mayunga, S.D 15
Concept / Condition of HI method:
3) Height of Instrument (HI) of a point is determined

by adding the BS readings of points whose RL (BM)
is known (see example 1).
4) In this method, the staff readings of both FS and

intermediate stations (IS) are subtracted from the
HI to determine the RLs of levelling points.
Mayunga, S.D 16
Arithmetic Check of Height of Instrument Method
1) ∑BS - ∑FS = Last Initial RL – First Initial RL
Mayunga, S.D 17
Levelling Procedure:
Line of Collimation
Line of Collimation
Line of Collimation
HI HI
HI
DATUM
Mayunga, S.D 18
•
Mayunga, S.D 19
•
Mayunga, S.D 20
•
Mayunga, S.D 21
Height of Instrument Levelling Booking Sheet
STATION BS IS FS HI REDUCED LEVEL
Height of Instrument Method
Example 1 :
Station Staff Readings Height of RL (m) Remarks
Instrument
“Points BS (m) FS (m)
A 2.365 102.365 100.000 BM
0.685 1.235 101.815 101.130 TP1
1.745 3.570 99.990 98.245 TP2
2.340 97.650
B 4.795 7.145 97.650
SUM BS – FS =4.795 - 7.145 =-2.350m RLA –RL B = -2.350m

Mayunga, S.D 23
Example 2:
The following staff readings were taken successively using an

automatic level with 4 m leveling staff. The instrument was shifted
after 4th and 7th readings. The initial reading was taken on a bench
mark (BM) whose RL. was 15.575 m and at an interval of 30 m.
Observed levels are: 0.565; 1.250; 1.675; 3.659; 0.125; 2.345;

0.500; 1.785; and 2.535.
Required to:
i) Enter all readings in a leveling booking sheet
ii) Calculate the Reduced Levels (RLs) of all points
Mayunga, S.D 24
Solution Exercise 1 :
Station BS IS FS HI R.L Remark
s
A 0.565 16.140 15.575 BM
B 1.250 14.890
C 1.675 14.465
D 0.125 3.695 12.570 12.445
E 2.345 10.225
F 1.785 0.500 13.855 12.070
G 2.535 11.320 BM
Sum 2.475 6.730
Sum BS – Sum FS = -4.255 LRL-1st RL = 11.320-15.575=-4.255

Mayunga, S.D 25
Example 3:
The following staff readings were taken successively
using an automatic level and the staff was moved at
third, sixth and eight readings
(BS)2.228; (IS)1.606; (FS)0.988; (BS)2.090; (FS)1.262;
(BS)0.602; (FS)1.982; (BS)1.044; (FS)2.684m
Required:
i) Enter the readings in a leveling book
ii) Calculate the reduced Level (RL) using HI
Method if the first reading staff reading was
taken at the BM with reduced level of
432.383m
Mayunga, S.D 26
Solution Example 3:
Station BS IS FS HI R.L Remarks
1 2.228 434.612 432.384 m BM
2 1.606 433.006
3 2.090 0.988 435.714 433.624 CP
4 2.864 432.850
5 0.602 1.262 435.054 434.452
6 1.044 1.982 434.116 433.072
7 2.684 431.432 m
Sum 5.964 6.916
Check 5.964-6.916 = - 0.952 431.432-432.384=-0.952
Mayunga, S.D 27
Example 9 – Effect of observation errors

Station BS IS FS HI (HC) RL Remarks
A 2.191 52.064 48.873 BM1
49.873
B 2.505 49.559
C 2.325 49.739
D 3.019 1.496 53.587 50.568
E 2.513 51.074
F 1.752 2.811 52.528 50.776
G 3.824/3.486 48.704 BM2
48.710
SUM 6.962 8.131 Lrl-1st RL = 48.704 – 48.873 =0.169
SUM BS – SUM FS = -- SUM RISE – SUM FALL
1.169 = -1.169
Check 1:
∑BS - ∑FS = Last Initial RL – First Initial RL
Mayunga, S.D 28
Comparison of Rise and Fall and
Height of Instrument methods
Mayunga, S.D 29
Comparison of R&F and HI methods
Concepts:
1) In the Rise and Fall method, the RLs of points
are determined from computed Rise or Fall
values obtained from subtraction of BS-FS or
FS-IS or IS -IS.
2) In the Height of Instrument (HI) method, the

RLs of points are determined from HI values
subtracted from either FS or IS.
3) In the Height of Instrument (HI) method, the

the Rise or Fall values are not determined.
Mayunga, S.D 30
Comparison of Levelling methods
Advantages of Rise and Fall method
a) The method has more arithmetic checks.
b) Intermediate sight are also utilized.
c) The rise and fall columns provides an

impression/overview of the topography
along the levelling route.
d) The method is preferred in precise leveling of establishing
benchmarks because of its arithmetic checks.
Mayunga, S.D 31
Disadvantages of Rise and Fall method:
a) The method is slow
b) It has more calculations
Mayunga, S.D 32
Advantage of HI method:
a) The method is very fast
Disadvantage of HI method:
b) The method does not have only two arithmetic

checks to detect levelling errors.
Mayunga, S.D 33
Sources of Errors in Levelling
Mayunga, S.D 34
Source of Errors in Leveling
Errors in Levelling are grouped into three

categories:
1) Instrument Errors
2) Error in handling the instrument
3) Error from natural causes/sources
Mayunga, S.D 35
1) Instrument Error
a) Collimation error
 Line of sight not horizontal
 The error can either be negative or positive
 The magnitude depends upon the distance

between the instrument and the staff
Mayunga, S.D 36
1) Instrument Error
Collimation error.......
Collimation Error – occurs when the line of sight not horizontal
Correct Collimation error

reading
Mayunga, S.D 37
1) Instrument Error
How to eliminate collimation error
 Make the BS and FS distances approx. equal
 Results in error of equal magnitude in both the BS and

FS reading.
 The difference between them to get H will result in

error canceling out
 Determine the magnitude of collimation error by
two peg test
Mayunga, S.D 38
1) Instrument Error
Collimation error.......
Collimation Error – occurred when the line of sight not horizontal
15m 15m Reading

With
Collimation error
A
C B
1) Site to A and take levelling staff reading say 1.524m
2) Site to B and take Levelling staff reading say 1.501m

The Rise at B is 1.524m – 1.501m
Mayunga, S.D
= 0.023m 39
1) Instrument Error
3) Move an automatic level approx. 3m from B take a
new reading at B Say 1.257m
4) Subtract the Rise at B to obtain FS expected at A.

i.e 1.257m – 0.023= 1.234m
5) Sight at A to obtain the actual reading.

If the actual reading at A is more than 1.234m there
is a collimation error.
Actual reading at A= 1.238m

Computed reading at A= 1.234m
A Mayunga, S.D 3m 40
B
Error in handling the Instrument
a) Parallax
 Eliminated by perfect focusing of the

telescope
 Focus of Cross Hairs to a sharp setting

:Note: every users parallax focus is different.
 Refocus on Target and check for parallax
Mayunga, S.D 41
b) Bubble not correctly centered
 Eliminated by ensuring the bubble is centered

before and after taking the reading
c) Non – verticality of staff
 Eliminated by using a staff fitted with a circular

bubble
Mayunga, S.D 42
Removing Staff Reading Errors
Step 2 Staff Slowly

Step 1 Staff Slowly Leant Tilted away from Step 3 Staff Slowly Tilted
Towards Instrument Instrument. When away from instrument. Once
Vertical lowest reading past vertical readings will
will be reading recorded increase
Important Note – The person

using the instrument keeps the
staff vertical by use of the
Vertical lineMayunga,
in the instrument.
S.D 43
d) Error due to displacement of the instrument
 When tripod is set up on soft ground it may settle during
observations and alter the HI
 Avoid soft ground
 Don’t disturb the tripod
Mayunga, S.D 44
d) Error due to levelling staff movement
while changing the instrument station
 Eliminated by using a foot plate
e) Error in reading the staff and booking the

readings
 Reading the staff against a stadia line
 Omitting a zero, e.g. reading 3.09 instead of

3.009
Mayunga, S.D 45
 Booking reading with number interchanged, e.g. 1.145
instead of 1.415
 Entering reading in a wrong column
 Forgetting to book a reading
 All these errors are eliminated by careful reading

and recording of the observations
 Also help if a booker to repeat/check the readings

taken by the observer after booking
Mayunga, S.D 46
Natural Causes Errors in leveling
a) Wind
 Cause to swing the levelling staff
 Causes Vibration of the instrument
 Cause vibration of the tripod
Precautions
 Shorten the length of sight
 If wind persists Stop the observation
Mayunga, S.D 47
Natural Causes of Errors in leveling
b) Sun
 Cause differential expansion of the Instrument due to

heating up
 Affects the bubble making it go off the center
 Sighting is impossible when sun shines into the objective

lens
 Cause shimmering of the image due to overheated ground

causing different air masses convection.
Mayunga, S.D 48
Natural Causes of Errors in leveling
b) Sun
Precautions:
 Shading of the instrument using Umbrella
 Reduce a length of sight
 Avoid sighting too close to the ground, less than

30cm
 Avoid observing when the sun is too hot

especially mid day
Mayunga, S.D 49
Natural Causes Errors
c) Curvature of the Earth and Refraction
 Line of sight is not a level line but a

horizontal line tangential to a level line
 When sights are too long, the deviation of

tangent from a circle becomes larger
 Hence, curvature correction must be applied
Mayunga, S.D 50
Curvature of the Earth
Effect of curvature of the Earth, the line of sight at the

instrument will deviate from a horizontal line as one
moves away from the level
Mayunga, S.D 51
Correction of Curvature Error
For a sight distance of 100m the effect is

only 1mm.
Keep Sight lengths under 50m
The effect is eliminated by using equal

sight distance for fore - and back sights.
Mayunga, S.D 52
Refraction
•
Mayunga, S.D 53
END OF LECTURE 7
Mayunga, S.D 54

Lecture 7 Levelling 29.3.2023 Final

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Lecture 7

1) Computation of Reduced Levels

2) Comparison of Levelling Methods

3) Sources of Errors in Levelling and Mitigation measures

Back sight and Fore Sight readings are used to

Conditions of Rise and Fall method

1) If BS > FS, This implies there is a rise of slope

2) If BS < FS, This implies there is a fall of slope

Arithmetic Check of Rise and Fall Method

1) ∑BS - ∑FS = ∑Rises - ∑Falls = Last Initial RL – First RL

To check for errors:

2 1.606 0.622 433.006

3 2.090 0.988 0.618 433.624 CP

4 2.864 0.774 432.850

5 0.602 1.262 1.602 434.452

6 1.044 1.982 1.380 433.072

7 2.684 1.640 431.432 m

Sum 5.964 6.916

B 1.250 0.685 14.890

C 1.675 0.425 14.460

D 0.125 3.695 2.020 12.440

E 2.345 2.220 10.220

F 1.785 0.500 1.845 12.065

G 2.535 0.75 11.315

Sum 2.470 6.730 LRL-FRL = 15.575 – 11.315 =4.260

Sum BS – Sum FS = -4.260

E 1.950 X 1.080 X CP1

B 3.540 0.980 99.02

C 3.200 0.340 99.36

D 2.430 0.860 100.22

E 1.950 1.260 1.080 101.30 CP1

F 2.440 0.490 101.81

G 3.465 1.02 99.79

SUM 4.51 4.72 2.28 2.49

SUM BS – SUM FS SUM RISE – SUM LLR – FRL =- 0.21

Back sight and Fore Sight readings are used to

3) Height of Instrument (HI) of a point is determined

4) In this method, the staff readings of both FS and

Arithmetic Check of Height of Instrument Method

1) ∑BS - ∑FS = Last Initial RL – First Initial RL

A 2.365 102.365 100.000 BM

0.685 1.235 101.815 101.130 TP1

1.745 3.570 99.990 98.245 TP2

B 4.795 7.145 97.650

SUM BS – FS =4.795 - 7.145 =-2.350m RLA –RL B = -2.350m

The following staff readings were taken successively using an

Observed levels are: 0.565; 1.250; 1.675; 3.659; 0.125; 2.345;

D 0.125 3.695 12.570 12.445

F 1.785 0.500 13.855 12.070

Sum 2.475 6.730

Sum BS – Sum FS = -4.255 LRL-1st RL = 11.320-15.575=-4.255

1 2.228 434.612 432.384 m BM

3 2.090 0.988 435.714 433.624 CP

5 0.602 1.262 435.054 434.452

6 1.044 1.982 434.116 433.072

Sum 5.964 6.916

Check 5.964-6.916 = - 0.952 431.432-432.384=-0.952

Example 9 – Effect of observation errors

D 3.019 1.496 53.587 50.568

2) In the Height of Instrument (HI) method, the

3) In the Height of Instrument (HI) method, the

a) The method has more arithmetic checks.

b) Intermediate sight are also utilized.