PLASTICITY AND

STRUCTURE OF SOIL
INTRODUCTION
When clay minerals are present in fine-grained soil, the soil can be
remolded in the presence of some moisture without crumbling.
This cohesive nature is caused by the adsorbed water surrounding
the clay particles

In the early 1900s, a Swedish scientist named Atterberg developed

a method to describe the consistency of fine-grained soils with
varying moisture contents.
INTRODUCTION

MOISTURE CONTENT SOIL BEHAVIOR

Very Low Solid

Very High Liquid

Depending on the moisture content, the behavior of soil can be

divided into four basic states- Solid, Semisolid, Plastic, and Liquid
INTRODUCTION

The moisture content, in percent, at which the transition

from solid to semisolid state takes place is defined as the
Shrinkage Limit. The moisture content at the point of
transition from semisolid to plastic state is the Plastic Limit,
and from plastic to liquid state is the Liquid Limit. These
parameters are also known as ATTERBERG LIMITS.
 ATTERBERG LIMITS
Stress

Stress

Stress
Strain Strain Strain
Stress – Strain Diagram of various states
Increasing
Moisture
SOLID SEMISOLID PLASTIC LIQUID Content

Shrinkage Limit, SL Plastic Limit, PL Liquid Limit, LL

LIQUID LIMIT
LIQUID LIMIT

Flat grooving tool

Liquid Limit Test

Wedge grooving tool

LIQUID LIMIT

Section

Plan

Soil pat before test Soil pat after test

LIQUID LIMIT

The moisture content, in percent, required to close a distance of

12.5 mm (0.5 in.) along the bottom of the groove after 25 blows is
defined as the Liquid Limit.

It is difficult to adjust the moisture content in the soil to meet the

required 12.5 mm (0.5 in.) closure of the groove in the soil pat at 25
blows. Hence, at least three tests for the same soil are conducted at
varying moisture contents, with the number of blows, N, required to
achieve closure varying between 15 and 35
LIQUID LIMIT

The moisture content of the soil, in percent, and the corresponding

number of blows are plotted on semilogarithmic graph paper. The
relationship between moisture content and log N is approximated
as a straight line. This line is referred to as the flow curve. The
moisture content corresponding to N 25, determined from the flow
curve, gives the liquid limit of the soil.
Flow curve for liquid limit determination
LIQUID LIMIT
The slope of the flow line is defined as the flow index and may be
written as;

𝑤1 − 𝑤2
𝐼𝐹=
log
( )
𝑁2
𝑁1
LIQUID LIMIT
From the analysis of hundreds of liquid limit tests, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
(1949) at the Waterways Experiment Station in Vicksburg, Mississippi, proposed an
empirical equation of the form

( )
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛽
𝑁
𝐿 𝐿=𝑤 𝑁
25
LIQUID LIMIT
FALL CONE METHOD - In this test the liquid limit is defined as the
moisture content at which a standard cone of apex angle 30° and weight
of 0.78 N (80 gf) will penetrate a distance d 20 mm in 5 seconds when
allowed to drop from a position of point contact with the soil surface

Due to the difficulty in achieving the liquid limit from a single test, four
or more tests can be conducted at various moisture contents to
determine the fall cone penetration, d.

A semilogarithmic graph can then be plotted with moisture content (w)

versus cone penetration d. The plot results in a straight line. The
moisture content corresponding to d 20 mm is the liquid limit.
LIQUID LIMIT

FALL CONE TEST

LIQUID LIMIT

FALL CONE TEST

LIQUID LIMIT
The slope of the flow line is defined as the flow index can be
defined as

𝑤2 −𝑤1
𝐼 𝐹𝐶 =
log 𝑑2 − log 𝑑 1

𝑤 h𝑒𝑟𝑒 :
PLASTIC LIMIT

The Plastic Limit is defined as the moisture content in percent, at which

the soil crumbles, when rolled into threads of 3.2 mm in diameter. The
plastic limit is the lower limit of the plastic stage of soil.

The plastic limit test is simple and is performed by repeated rolling of an

ellipsoidal-sized soil mass by hand on a ground glass plate. The procedure
for the plastic limit test is given by ASTM in Test Designation D-4318.
PLASTIC LIMIT

The fall cone method can be used to obtain the plastic limit. This can be
achieved by using a cone of similar geometry but with a mass of 2.35 N
(240 gf). Three to four tests at varying moisture contents of soil are
conducted, and the corresponding cone penetrations (d) are determined.
The moisture content corresponding to a cone penetration of d 20 mm is
the plastic limit.
PLASTIC LIMIT
PLASTIC LIMIT
The Plasticity Index (PI) is the difference between the liquid limit and
the plastic limit of a soil, or

𝑃𝐼 =𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐿
Where:
PI
LL
PLASTIC LIMIT
The Plasticity Index (PI) is the difference between the liquid limit and
the plastic limit of a soil, or

𝑃𝐼 =𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐿 PI DESCRIPTION
0 Nonplastic
1- 5 Slightly Plastic
5 – 10 Low Plasticity
10 – 20 Medium Plasticity
20 – 40 High Plasticity
> 40 Very High Plasticity
SHRINKAGE LIMIT
Soil shrinks as moisture is gradually lost from it. With continuing loss of
moisture, a stage of equilibrium is reached at which more loss of
moisture will result in no further volume change.

The moisture content, in percent, at which the volume of the soil mass
ceases to change is defined as the Shrinkage Limit.
 SHRINKAGE LIMIT

𝑉𝑖 ∆𝑤

𝑉𝑓
Volume of
soil

Shrinkage Limit Plastic Limit Liquid Limit 𝑤𝑖

Moisture Content (%)
SHRINKAGE LIMIT

𝑆𝐿 =𝑤𝑖 − ∆𝑤

𝑊h𝑒𝑟𝑒 :
SHRINKAGE LIMIT
𝑆𝐿=𝑤𝑖 − ∆𝑤

H 𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟 ,

𝑀 1− 𝑀 2
𝑤𝑖 ( % )= 𝑥 100
𝑀2

𝑊h𝑒𝑟𝑒 :
SHRINKAGE LIMIT
𝑆𝐿=𝑤𝑖 − ∆𝑤

𝑀 1− 𝑀 2
𝑤𝑖 ( % )= 𝑥 100
𝑀2

A 𝑙𝑠𝑜 ,
(𝑣 ¿ ¿ 𝑖 − 𝑣 𝑓 )𝜌 𝑤
∆ 𝑤 ( %) = 𝑥 100 ¿
𝑀2

𝑊h𝑒𝑟𝑒 :
SHRINKAGE LIMIT
𝑀 1− 𝑀 2 (𝑣 ¿ ¿ 𝑖 − 𝑣 𝑓 )𝜌 𝑤
𝑤𝑖 ( % )= 𝑥 100 ∆ 𝑤 ( %) = 𝑥 100 ¿
𝑀2 𝑀2

𝑆𝐿=𝑤𝑖 − ∆𝑤

𝑆𝐿 =
(
𝑀 1 − 𝑀2
𝑀2 )
( 100 ) − (
𝑣 𝑖 −𝑣 𝑓
𝑀2
( )
𝜌 𝑤 ) ( 100 )
SHRINKAGE LIMIT
Another parameter that can be determined from a shrinkage limit test is
the Shrinkage Ratio, which is the ratio of the volume change of soil as a
percentage of the dry volume to the corresponding change in moisture
content

𝑆𝑅=
( )
∆𝑉
𝑉𝑓
=
( ) ∆𝑉
𝑉𝑓

(𝑀 ) ( 𝑀 )
∆𝑀
2
∆𝑉 𝜌
2
𝑤

𝑀2
𝑆𝑅=
𝑉 𝑓 𝜌𝑤
SHRINKAGE LIMIT
It can also be shown that; If desired, the maximum expected volumetric
shrinkage and linear shrinkage at given
1 moisture contents (w) can be calculated a
𝐺𝑠=
1
𝑆𝑅
−
𝑆𝐿
100( ) 𝑉𝑆 ( % ) =𝑆𝑅 [ 𝑤 ( % ) − 𝑆𝐿]

𝑊h𝑒𝑟𝑒 : 𝑊h𝑒𝑟𝑒 :

and

[ ( ) ] 𝑊h𝑒𝑟𝑒 :
1
100
𝐿𝑆 ( % )=100 1 − 3
𝑉𝑆 ( % ) +100
Liquidity Index and Consistency Index
The relative consistency of a cohesive soil in the natural state can be defined by a
ratio called the Liquidity Index, which is given by

𝑤 − 𝑃𝐿
𝐿𝐼 =
𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐿
𝑊h𝑒𝑟𝑒 :
The in-situ moisture content for a sensitive clay may be greater than the liquid limit. In this case

𝐿𝐼 >1
These soils, when remolded, can be transformed into a viscous form to flow like a liquid. Soil
deposits that are heavily over consolidated may have a natural moisture content less than the plastic
limit. In this case

𝐿𝐼 < 0
Liquidity Index and Consistency Index
Another index that is commonly used for engineering purposes is the Consistency
Index (CI), which may be defined as

𝐿𝐿 −𝑤
𝐶𝐼 =
𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐼

𝑊h𝑒𝑟𝑒 :
Example Problem #1
Results from liquid and plastic limit tests conducted on a soil are
given below. Liquid limit tests:
Number of blows, N Moisture Content (%)
14 38.4
16 36.5
20 33.1
28 27.0

Plastic Limit Test: PL = 13.4%

a. Draw the flow curve and obtain the liquid limit.

b. What is the plasticity index of the soil?
c. Determine the liquidity index of the soil if w (in-situ) = 32%
Example Problem #1
Results from liquid and plastic limit tests conducted on a soil are
given below. Liquid limit tests:
Number of blows, N Moisture Content (%)
14 38.4
16 36.5
20 33.1
28 27.0

Plastic Limit Test: PL = 13.4%

a. Draw the flow curve and obtain the liquid limit.

b. What is the plasticity index of the soil?
c. Determine the liquidity index of the soil if w (in-situ) = 32%
Example Problem #2 (CE MAY 2004)
Given the laboratory results of the Atterberg Limits Test. Plot the
water content versus the number of blows.
a. Determine the nearest value to the Liquid Limit of the soil.
b. Determine the nearest value to the Plastic Limit of the soil.
c. Determine the nearest value to the Liquidity Index of the soil.
 Example Problem #2 (CE MAY 2004)
Given the laboratory results of the LIQUID LIMIT
Atterberg Limits Test. Plot the water Test Number 1 2 3 4
content versus the number of blows.
Number of Blows 38 29 20 14
a. Determine the nearest value to
the Liquid Limit of the soil. Weight of Wet Soil + Container, g 22.47 21.29 21.27 26.12
b. Determine the nearest value to Weight of Dry Soil + Container, g 19.44 18.78 18.75 22.10
the Plastic Limit of the soil.
Weight of Container, g 12.74 13.24 13.20 13.27
c. Determine the nearest value to
the Liquidity Index of the soil. Weight of Water, g
Weight of Dry Soil, g
Water Content, %
 Example Problem #2 (CE MAY 2004)
Given the laboratory results of the
Atterberg Limits Test. Plot the water
content versus the number of blows.
a. Determine the nearest value to
the Liquid Limit of the soil.
b. Determine the nearest value to
the Plastic Limit of the soil.
c. Determine the nearest value to
the Liquidity Index of the soil.
Example Problem #3
Following are the results of a shrinkage limit test:

• Initial volume of soil in a saturated state = 24.6 cu.cm

• Final volume of soil in a dry state = 15.9 cu.cm
• Initial mass in a saturated state = 44.0 g
• Final mass in a dry state = 30.1 g

a. Determine the shrinkage limit of the soil.

b. Determine the shrinkage ratio of the soil
c. Estimate the specific gravity of the soil solids.
Soil Activity
Because the plasticity of soil is caused by
the adsorbed water that surrounds the
clay particles, we can expect that the type
of clay minerals and their proportional
amounts in a soil will affect the liquid and
plastic limits. Skempton (1953) observed
that the plasticity index of a soil increases
linearly with the percentage of clay-size
fraction (% finer than 2 mm by weight)
present.
Soil Activity
The correlations of PI with the clay-size
fractions for different clays plot separate
lines. This difference is due to the diverse
plasticity characteristics of the various
types of clay minerals. On the basis of
these results, Skempton defined a
quantity called activity, which is the slope
of the line correlating PI and % finer than
2 mm. This activity may be expressed as

𝑃𝐼
𝐴=
(% 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑦 − 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 , 𝑏𝑦 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔h𝑡 )
Plasticity Chart
An A-line separates the inorganic clays
from the inorganic silts. Inorganic clay
values lie above the A-line, and values for
inorganic silts lie below the A-line.

Note that a line called the U-line lies

above the A-line. The U-line is
approximately the upper limit of the
relationship of the plasticity index to the
liquid limit for any currently known soil.
Plasticity Chart
There is another use for the A-line and the U-line. Casagrande has suggested that the
shrinkage limit of a soil can be approximately determined if its plasticity index and liquid
limit are known.

a. Plot the plasticity index against the

liquid limit of a given soil such as
point A in Figure 4.20.
b. Project the A-line and the U-line
downward to meet at point B. Point
B will have the coordinates of LL
43.5 and PI 46.4.
c. Join points B and A with a straight
line. This will intersect the liquid limit
axis at point C. The abscissa of point
C is the estimated shrinkage limit.
Soil Structure
Soil structure is defined as the geometric arrangement of soil particles with respect to
one another. Among the many factors that affect the structure are the shape, size, and
mineralogical composition of soil particles, and the nature and composition of soil water.
In general, soils can be placed into two groups: cohesionless and cohesive.
Structures in Cohesionless Soil
The structures generally encountered in cohesionless soils can be divided into two major
categories: single grained and honeycombed.

In single-grained structures, soil particles are in stable positions, with each particle in
contact with the surrounding ones. The shape and size distribution of the soil particles
and their relative positions influence the denseness of packing.
Structures in Cohesionless Soil
(a) shows the case of a very loose state of packing. If we isolate a cube with each side
measuring d, which is equal to the diameter of each sphere as shown in the figure, the
void ratio can be calculated as

𝑉 𝑣 𝑉 −𝑉 𝑠
𝑒= =
𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠

:
Structures in Cohesionless Soil
The type of packing shown in (a) is called cubical or simple cubical packing, with void
ratio e = 0.91
Structures in Cohesionless Soil
Similarly, (b) shows the case of a very dense state of packing. It also shows an isolated
cube, for which each side measures It can be shown that, for this case, e = 0.35. This is
referred to as pyramidal packing.
Structures in Cohesionless Soil
Other types of packing

Simple Stagger Packing Double Stagger Packing

e = 0.65 e = 0.43
Structures in Cohesive Soil
When two clay particles in suspension come close to each other, the tendency for
interpenetration of the diffuse double layers results in repulsion between the particles.
At the same time, an attractive force exists between the clay particles that is caused by
van der Waals forces and is independent of the characteristics of water. Both repulsive
and attractive forces increase with decreasing distance between the particles, but at
different rates.

When the spacing between the particles is very small, the force of attraction is greater
than the force of repulsion. These are the forces treated by colloidal theories.

When the clay is initially dispersed in water, the particles repel one another. This
repulsion occurs because with larger interparticle spacing, the forces of repulsion
between the particles are greater than the forces of attraction.
Structures in Cohesive Soil
The sediment formed by the settling of the
individual particles has a dispersed structure, and
all particles are oriented more or less parallel to
one another (a)

If the clay particles initially dispersed in water

come close to one another during random motion
in suspension, they might aggregate into visible
flocs with edge-to-face contact. This aggregation
is known as flocculation.

When the flocs become large, they settle under

the force of gravity. The sediment formed in this
manner has a flocculent structure (b)
Structures in Cohesive Soil
When salt is added to a clay–water suspension
that has been initially dispersed, the ions tend to
depress the double layer around the particles.
This depression reduces the interparticle
repulsion. The clay particles are attracted to one
another to form flocs and settle. The flocculent
structure of the sediments formed is shown in (c)

(a) Dispersion
(b) Non-salt flocculation
(c) Salt flocculation
Structures in Cohesive Soil
Clays that have flocculent structures are lightweight and possess high void ratios. Clay
deposits formed in the sea are highly flocculent. Most of the sediment deposits formed
from freshwater possess an intermediate structure between dispersed and flocculent.

A deposit of pure clay minerals is rare in nature. When a soil has 50% or more particles
with sizes of 0.002 mm or less, it is generally termed clay.

Individual clay particles tend to be aggregated or flocculated in submicroscopic units.

These units are referred to as domains. The domains then group together, and these
groups are called clusters. Clusters can be seen under a light microscope. This grouping
to form clusters is caused primarily by interparticle forces. The clusters, in turn, group
to form peds. Peds can be seen without a microscope. Groups of peds are
macrostructural features along with joints and fissures.
Structures in Cohesive Soil

Arrangement of peds and Arrangement of domains and

macropore spaces clusters with silt-sized particles
END