Propositional Logic (Propositional Calculus)

First-order Logic (First-order Predicate

Calculus)
Rules, Frames and Semantic Networks

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• Together, representation and reasoning
support the operation of a knowledge-based
agent.
• A Knowledge Representation Language is
defined by two aspects:
– Syntax and Semantics
• From the syntax and semantics, we can derive
an inference mechanism for an agent that
uses the language.

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The syntax:
• Vocabulary:
– A set of propositional symbols - e.g., P, Q, …
• A set of logical connectives or operators
– usually  (OR),  (AND), ¬ (NOT),  (implication),
maybe  (equivalence), Parenthesis (for grouping)
• The special symbols
– True, False (logical constants)

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Rules for forming sentences:
• Each symbol (i.e., a constant or a
propositional symbol) is a sentence (an atomic
sentence).
• A sentence in parentheses is a sentence.
• If P and Q are sentences, then so are
– P  Q (disjunction)
– P  Q (conjunction)
– ¬P (negation)
– P  Q (implication)
– and similarly for whatever other connectives we allow

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Sample What do the sentences
sentences mean?
• P  E.g., P might be “It is
• True raining in Mombasa”, and
• P  Q Q, “Eldoret is a city”
• ¬P  We interpret logical

• (P  Q)
connectives in the obvious
way.
• ¬(P  Q)
 E.g., ¬P means that P is not the
• ¬P  Q case; P  Q means that at least
one of P or Q is true.
• (P  Q)  R
• P  ¬P

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Truth
• For sentences, we also get to say whether
they are true or false.
– True is always true; False always false.
– P, Q, etc., are true or false depending on their
interpretation.
• So these are satisfiable, but not valid.
– Complex sentences are true or false as a function of
their connective.
• Usually specified as a truth table.

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 Truth tables
Conjunction() Disjunction()
P Q PQ P Q PQ
false false false false false false
false true false false true true
true false false true false true
true true true true true true

Implication() Negation()
P Q PQ P P
false false true true false
false true false false true
true false true
true true true
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A Proof Theory for Propositional Logic
• It is easy to devise a procedure to determine the truth of
an arbitrary sentence in propositional logic.
• Just write down a big truth table, and see if the sentence
is always true.
• E.g., suppose we want to know if ¬(PQ)  ¬P  ¬Q.
• Here is a truth table:

P Q ¬(PQ) ¬P  ¬Q ¬(PQ)  ¬P  ¬Q
false false true true true
false true true true true
true false true true true
true true false false true

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Reasoning in Propositional Logic
• Similarly, if we assume a few things, we can
determine if something follows.
• E.g., if we assume P, then PQ, say, degenerates
into True  Q, which a truth table will tell us is
always true.
• So, we can always draw valid conclusions from
premises, regardless of what any of this means

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• Propositional Logic has limitations, - it is not
expressive enough
• First-Order Logic is an improvement and is
useful

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Note: FOL forms the basis of most
representation schemes in A.I

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• FOL is an extension of Propositional Logic
• In FOL, the world consists of objects, i.e. things
with individual identities and properties that
distinguish them from other objects.
• Among these objects, various relations hold.
Some of these relations are functions. i.e.
relations in which there is only one “value” for a
given “input”.
Examples:
– Objects: people, houses, colours, the moon, Mutua,...
– Relation: brother of, bigger than, inside, part of, owns,..
– Properties: red, round, healthy, tall..
– Functions: father of, best friend,...

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Syntax:
• Connectives - , , , 
• Quantifiers - , 
• Constants - A, X ,Mutua, Alice,..
1,
• Variables - a, x, s,..
• Predicate - Before, HasColour, Raining,..
• Functions - Mother, LegOf,..

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 Quantifiers allow expression of
properties of entire collection of
objects, instead of numerating
the objects.
 We examine the two standard
quantifiers in predicate logic
and these are universal and
existential quantifiers.

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 This quantification is used
when the predicate is true
for all objects. For
example:
 (x), cat(x) 
mammal(x).

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 This quantifier is used when a predicate P is
true for some object in the universe. For
example someone is tall may be denoted as
x , tall(x).
 Someone is short is denoted as x short(x).
 Someone likes a given person is denoted by
x, a likes(a, x).

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 Quantifiers can be mixed such as in x y
likes(x,y) equivalenty x y likes(x,y).
 To say there is someone who likes everyone
we express x y likes(x,y).
 To say there is some liked by everybody we
express x y likes(y,x).

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•  and  are linked by negation of each other. In the
universe  represents a conjunction and  represents a
disjunction.

• Everyone dislikes paper No one likes paper

• x likes(x, paper)  x likes(x,
papers).

• Everyone likes sweets Nobody does not like

sweets
• x likes(x, sweets)  x likes(x,
sweets).
• “Everybody likes ice cream” no one who doesn’t like ice
cream.
x likes(x, icecream)  x likes(x,
icecream)
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 x P  x P
 x P  x P
 x P  x P
 x P  x P
 PQ  (PQ)

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 (PQ)  PQ
 PQ  (PQ)
 PQ  (PQ)
 Equality (=)
 Equality symbol is used to indicate that two
terms refer to the same object.
 Father(jane) = james.

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 Example ‘ All men are people’
 X: Man(X)  Person(X)
 If it is not raining, then it is sunny
 RAINING  SUNNY
 Is converse true?
 RAINING  SUNNY
 All Kenyans are loyal to Kibaki or hate him
  x : Kenyan(x) loyalto(x, Kibaki) hate(x, Kibaki).
 Every one is loyal to someone
 x : y : loyalto (x,y)
 All men are people
 x : man(x)  person(x)
 We explore the use of these notations further in a later
section.

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• Some dogs bark
 x. Dog x  Barks x

• All barking dogs are irritating.

All barking dogs are irritating
 x . Dog x  Barking x  Irritating x

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 No dogs purr.
¬  x . Dog x  Purrs x
 x . Dog x  ¬ Purrs x
 Fathers are male parents with children
 x . Male x  Parent x  ( y . Child y and has x y)
 Father x
 Students are people who are enrolled in
courses.
 x . Student x  Person x  ( y . Course y 
enrolled_on x y)

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 Production rules
 A knowledge representation method in
which knowledge is formalized into rules that
have IF parts and THEN parts (also called
conditions and actions, respectively)
 A set of if-then rules - typically state that if
certain conditions hold, then some action
should be taken.

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 • If -then relation:
Examples:
1. IF high_temperature THEN prescribe
aspirin
IF A THEN B
2. IF international Conflict Begins AND it is
in Middle East THEN oil price goes up.
Symbolically:
IF A AND B THEN C

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Example
Consider the following information given by consumers surveying bureau of Kenya
Let the rules and symbols be as follows:
“if one leaves near Muthaiga road (A)and has a plump salary(B)
then he is likely to join muthaiga golf club(C). One can say he
leaves near Muthaiga road(A) if he leaves less than 15
kilometers off the road.(D). The survey also reveals that you
have to have a plump income (B) and be a who-is-who in
Nairobi(E) so that you can join an exclusive club(F). If you can
join an exclusive club(F) then you are likely to meet
politicians(G). One who meets politicians (G)is said to be well
connected(H). If one can join exclusive (F) and is a who-is-who
in Nairobi (E) then he is well connected.(H). If well connected
then (H)one can join Muthaiga golf club (C). If one can join
Muthaiga golf club (C) then he is likely to meet the president
(I).”
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 IF A AND B THEN C
 IF D THEN A
 IF B AND E THEN F
 IF F THEN G
 IF G THEN H
 IF F AND E THEN H
 IF H THEN C
 IF C THEN I

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 Major advantages of rules
 Rules are easy to understand
 Inferences and explanations are easily derived
 Modifications and maintenance are relatively
easy
 Uncertainty is easily combined with rules
 Each rule is often independent of all others

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 Major limitations of rule representation:
 Complex knowledge requires thousands of
rules, which may create difficulties in using
and maintaining the system
 Builders like rules, so they try to force all
knowledge into rules rather than look for more
appropriate representations
 Systems with many rules may have a search
limitation in the control program
 Some programs have difficulty evaluating rule-
based systems and making inferences

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 Semantic network
A knowledge representation method that
consists of a network of nodes, representing
concepts or objects, connected by arcs
describing the relations between the nodes

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A semantic net is represented as a graph, where
the nodes in the graph represent concepts,
and the arcs represent binary relationships between
concepts.
Nodes represent objects, attributes and
values
Links represent attributes and relationships
between nodes
Labels attached to links: the name of the
corresponding attribute or relation
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1. animal
Is_a Is_a
Has part

reptile mammal head

Is_a

elephant

Is_instance_of

Clyde

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 Frame
A knowledge representation scheme that
associates one or more features with an
object in terms of slots and particular slot
values
 Slot
A sub-element of a frame of an object. A slot is
a particular characteristic, specification, or
definition used in forming a knowledge base
 Facet
An attribute or a feature that describes the
content of a slot in a frame

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Mammal
subclass: Animal
warm_blooded: yes

Elephant
subclass: Mammal
* colour: grey
* size: large

Clyde
instance: Elephant
color: pink
owner: Fred
37
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 Inheritance
The process by which one object takes on or
is assigned the characteristics of another
object higher up in a hierarchy
 Instantiate
To assign (or substitute) a specific value or
name to a variable in a frame (or in a logic
expression), making it a particular
“instance” of that variable

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 1. Machine Learning, Tom Mitchell, McGraw-
Hill.
 Stuart Russell, Norvig Peter, Artificial
Intelligence : A Modern ApproachPrentice Hall
series in AI 2ND ED, New Jersey, U.S.A, 2003
 3. Rich,E., and Knight.K., Artificial
Intelligence.2nd Ed., Tata Mcgraw-Hill , New
Delhi India, 2003.Turban, E. Aronson, J.,
Decision Support systems and Intelligent
Systems, 6nd Edition. Pearson Education, New
Delhi India,2003.
 2. WWW as guided topic to topic.
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